Kambojas (modern Kambojs/Kambohs) are a very ancient people of north-western parts of ancient India, frequently mentioned in ancient texts, although not in the Rig Veda itself. They are known to belong to ancient Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family.

In Aitareya Brahmana, the Uttarakuru and Uttaramadra tribes have been stated to be living beyond Himalaya (VIII.14). The Vamsa Brahamana (1/18) of the Samveda refers to Madrakara Shaungayani as a teacher of Aupmanyava Kamboja (Vedic Index II, p 61). According to Dr A. D. Pusalkar, sage Upamanyu mentioned in the Rgveda (I.102.9), too all probability, is the father of this Kamboja teacher(History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age, p 259). Similar are the views of Dr Zimmer, Dr Ludwig and Dr Law (Some Kshatrya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 231). From the fact that Kamboja Aupamanyava is stated to be pupil of sage Madrakara, Dr Keith and Dr Macdonnel of the Vedic Index as well as Dr H. Zimmer etc postulate a possible connection of the Uttaramadras with the Kambojas, who probably had both Iranian as well as Indian affinities (Vedic Index, I.84, 138; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, pp 65, 164, Dr M. R. Singh; India as Known to Panini, p 50, Dr V. S. Aggarwala; cf also: An Ancient People of Panjab, The Udumbras, Journal Asiatique, 1926, p 11, Jean Przylusky showing that Bahlika (Balkh) was an Iranian settlement of the Madras who were known as Bahlika-Uttaramadras).

Kambojas - An Iranian Tribe

Numerous historians now believe that the Kambojas were a tribe of the Iranian Aryans.

As shown in the Jataka and Avestic literature, Kamboja was a center of ancient Iranian civilization as evidenced by the peculiar customs of the country (The Kamboja Janapada, Jan 1964, Purana, Vol VI, No 1, Dr V. S. Aggarwala, p 229; Jataka edited by Fausboll, Vol VI, p 210 )

Zoroastrian religion had probably originated in Kamboja-land (Bacteria-Badakshan)....the Kambojas spoke Avestan language. (Bharatiya Itihaas Ki Rup Rekha, p 229-231, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar).

Dr Michael Witzel also thinks that the Kambojas were east Iranians speaking Avestan language [Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies,Vol. 7 (2001), issue 3 (May 25), Art. 9]

Yaska (700 BC), in his Nirukuta , contrasts the speech of the Kambojas with that of the Aryans i.e Indo-Aryans:

Sanskrit:

shavatir gatikarmaa Kamboje.sv eva bhaa.syate...vikaara enam Aaryaa bha.sante shava iti

English:

The verb 'shavati', meaning 'to go', is used by the Kambojas only..... but its root 'shava' is used by the Indo-Aryans.

— Nirukuta II/2

Almost similar information on Kambojas is provided by Patanjali's Mahaabhaasya (2nd c BC).

Sanskrit:

zavatir gatikarmaa kamboje.sv eva bhaa.sito bhavati, vikaara enam aaryaa bha.sante zava iti.

— (Patanjali's Mahaabhaa.sya is p. 9, in Vol. 1 Kielhorn's Edition).

English:

The verb 'zav' in the sense of 'going' is used only among the Kambojas. The same verb in the nominal form 'zava' is used by the Aaryas in the sense of 'transformation'.

It is interesting to note that this evidence by Yasaka (7th c BC) and Patanjali (2nd c BC) puts the Kambojas in straight contrast to the Indo-Aryans and further, the the word shavati is not found in ancient Sanskrit literature but it is a well known Iranian word. ('The Language of the Kambojas', Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1911, p 802, Dr G. A. Grierson; cf: Kamboja verb shavati represents, sound by sound, the Young Avestan sauuaiti 'to go'....Dr Michael Witzel, Persica, 9, 1980, p 92).

Dr G. A. Grierson sees in this reference the Iranian affinities of the Kambojas (Linguistic Survey of India, Vol X, pp 406, 473-74, 475, 500 etc; Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1911, pp 801-02; Bharat Bhumi, pp 297-303, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar; cf: The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 4, p 199, by John Boardman).

cf: ".. the Nirukta of Yáska (300 BC) has been cited for the statement the word shavati as a verb of motion is spoken among the Kambojas, a statement that would be correct for speakers of an Iranian dialect" (The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 4, p 199, by John Boardman)

Dr. Grierson's views are further reinforced by a gatha from Bhuridatta Jataka, which informs us that the ancient Kambojas considered it a religious duty to kill poisnous insects, moths, snakes, worms and frogs etc (Fausboll, Jataka, Vol VI, pp 208, 210):

Pali:

kita patanga urga cha mekka/

hattya kirmi sujjhati makkhika//

ete hi dhamma anaryarupa/

kambojakanam vitatha bahunan ti//

— (Jataka, VI, 208)

English:

Those men are counted pure who only kill,

Frogs, worms, bees, snakes or insects as they will,

These are your savage customs which I hate,

Such as Kamboja hordes might emulate.

— (The Jataka, VI, p 110, Trans. E. B. Cowell)

"This gatha, by itself, establishes a close connections between the ancient Kambojas and the ancient Iranians with whom the destruction of noxious or ahramanic creatures was a duty" (Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1912, p 256, Dr G. A. Grierson).

That killing of lower animals is a Zoroastrian religious practice is attested from the passages in Mazdean books like the Videvati (XIV.5-6) as well as from the remarks of Herodotus (I.140) about the Persian religion.

Herodotus on Persians/Magians:

[Art: 1.140]: "....... The Magi (priests of the Persians)...... kill animals of all kinds with their own hands, excepting dogs and men. They even seem to take a delight in the employment and kill, as readily as they do other animals, ants and snakes, and such like flying or creeping things....." (Herodotus, Translated by: George Rawlinson).

Almost similar information is also furnished by Mahabharata, which speaks of the Yavanas, Kambojas, Darunas etc as the fierce barbarians from Uttarapatha (MBH 6/9/65) as well as a Mlechcha tribes (i.e non-Indo-Aryans) from beyond the north (MBH 6/11/63-64):

Sanskrit:

uttarashchapare mlechchha jana bharatasattama .//63

Yavanashcha sa Kamboja Daruna mlechchha jatayah /

— (MBH 6/11/63-64)

and further reckons them among the sinful people having nature of Svapakas and Grddharas (MBH XII/207/43-44).

Sanskrit:

uttara pathajanmanah kirtayishyami tanapi./

Yauna Kamboja Gandharah Kirata barbaraih saha.//43

ete papakritastata charanti prithivimimam./

shvakakabalagridhrana.n sadharmano naradhipa.//44

— (MBH 12/207/43-44)

Hence, this Mahabharata evidence also alludes to non-Indo-Aryanism i.e Zoroastrianism of the Kambojas, as attested by the Buddhist Jataka above.

Assalayanasutta (II.149) of Majjhima Nikaya differentiates the Kambojas from Indo-Aryans in that the Kambojas, Yavanas (alien westerners) and some other frontier people practiced only two social classes...Arya and Dasa...master and slave:

Pali:

Yona-Kambojaseu annesu cha panchchantimesu janapadesu dvea vanna

ayyo ceva daso ca ayyo hutva daso hoti daso hutva ayyo hoti ti..

— (Majjhima Nikaya (II.149))

This social practice of the Kambojas differentiated them from the Indo-Aryans who believed in Brahmanical varnasharmadharama and thus practiced chatur-varna or four-class social system.

Even the Ganapatha 178 on Panini's rule II.1.72-Mayuravyamsakadi differentiates the Kambojas from Indo-Aryans saying that Kambojas practiced wearing short head-hair (Kamboja-mundah Yavana-mundah) where as the Indo-Aryans usually wore long hair or else they supported a top knot. This fact is also attested from Mahabharata (7/119/23) as well as from numerous puranas.

Beyond any reasonable doubt that the Kambojas were a tribe of the Iranians (Journal of Royal Ssiatic Society, 1912, p 256, Dr G. A. Grierson)

The Kambojas were a tribe of the Iranians (History of lndia, Vol. I, Dr R. Thapar 1961/1997: p 276).

cf: The Kambojas were of Iranian extractions....they were settled in Afghanistan region in Uttarapatha. Their numbers were ocassionally swelled by new migrants from Iran, especially during age of Achaemenians (Purana, Vol V, No 2, Juky 1963, p 256, Dr D. C. Sircar).

cf: The Kambojas...who were known in Indian traditions as a foreign people, with peculiar customs, who raised celebrated horses, spoke - as the Nirukuta (II,2.8) tells us- a language with iranian words in it..... and had, according to Buddhist Jataka (VI.206, 27-30), a certain religious practice - the killing of insects, moths, snakes and worms - which we may recognize as Mazdean from the passages in Mazdean books like the Videvati (XIV.5-6) as well as from the remark of Herodotus (I.140) about the Persian religion (Journal Asiatique, CCXLVI 1958, I, pp 47-48, Beneveniste; cf: Early Eastern Iran and the Atharvaveda, Persica-9, 1980, fn 81,84,pp 114, 115, Dr Michael Witzel).

The Kambojas located somewhere in east Afghanistan spoke Iranian language and followed Zoroastrian habits of killing lower animals (Early Eastern Iran and the Atharvaveda, Persica-9, 1980, fn 81, p 114, Dr Michael Witzel).

According to W. J. Vogelsang and Willem Vogelsang, the name Kamboja was commonly applied in Indian sources to the Iranian population of the borderlands i.e Afghanistan. (The Afghans (Peoples of Asia), 2001, p 127, also Index, W. J. Vogelsang and Willem Vogelsang; Also Fraser 1979).

One thing more: The ancient Kambojas have also been referred to as Asura warriors in texts like Markandeya Puraana (Verse 8.1-6) as well as in Srîmad Devî Bhâgawatam (verses 5/28/1-12) etc.

These ancient texts refer to a mythological war of goddess Durga/Ambika with some mighty Asura warriors/clans of north-west like Udayudh, Kambu, Kotiveerya, Dhumravanshajaata, Kaalaka, Kaalkeya etc (obviously, all Iranians). There is reference to eighty-four select warriors from the Kambu (Kamboja) clan accompanied by Kambu fighters set on a ferocious war with the deva forces of goddess Durga.

Scholars like Swami Vijnanannanda have correctly identified the Kambu clan with the Kambojas of Hindukush and the allied Kaalkeyas with the Afridis etc [See: The Shrîmad Devî Bhâgawatam, Trans: Swami Vijñanananda (1921-22), p 451]

It may be noted that the great Asura warrior king Shumbha, the hero of the Asura/Danava forces has been referred to as danuja-lord, the son of Diti (i.e ditija-danuja-âdayah) in Shri Devî Bhâgawatam as well as Markandeya Puraana traditions etc (Ref: Devi-Mahatam verse 9.30).

It is very interesting to note that great epic Mahabharata also mentions one king Chandraverman of the Kambojas, who has been referred to as an incarnation of a great Asura Chandra addressed as ditija.shreshtho i.e. foremost among the Asuras, the son of Diti (Diti was perhaps a local cult deity worshipped in Hindukush).

Sanskrit:

Chandrastu ditija.shreshtho loke taradhipopamah //31.

Chandra.varmati vikhiyaatah Kambojanam.nra.dhipah /32.

— MBH 2/67/31-32, Gorakhpore Edition; See also K.M Ganguli's online MBH)

This reference also alludes to Iranian affinities of the Kambojas. It appears likely that this mythical Asura king Shumbha of Puranic Hindu texts actually refers to some daring-do warrior from the Iranian Kambojas of north-west; and that the Durga/Shumbha legend may refer to some dimly remembered border clash among the ancient Iranian Aryans and the Vedic Aryans after the great divide had occured. Perhaps Ditija Chandraverman of Mahabharata and Ditija Shumbha of Merkendeya Purana/Srîmad Devî Bhâgawatam texts refer to same personage.

Asura was the name by which the ancient Indo-Aryans addressed their ancient Iranian neighbors. The same word is found as Ahura in ancient Persian traditions. The Asuras or Ahuras were Iranians followers of Ahuramazada (Zoroastrian religion) which the Kambojas indeed were. Inittially, the word Asura did not have the negative (demoniac) connotations which it got only in later times. The Iranians, on the other hand, called the Indo-Aryans as Daevas on account of their being Deva worshippers.

[Refs: Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1911, p 801-02; Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1912, p 255-56; Linguistic Survey of India, Vol X, pp 456-57, Dr G. A. Grierson; Das Folk Der Kamboja bei Yasaka, Dr E. Kuhn, First Series of Avesta, Pahlavi and Ancient Persian Studies in honour of the late Shams-ul-ulama Dastur Peshotanji Bahramji Strassberg and Leipzig, pp 213-14; cf: J. Bloch, Indo-Aryan, Paris, 1965, p 330; Also Lit. Gesch, 9 169, p 363, Weber; Early Eastern Iran and Atharvaveda , Persica-9, 1980, fn 81, 83 Witzel and Leiden; Purana, Vol V,No 2, July 1963, p 256, Dr D. C. Sircar; The Afghans (Peoples of Asia), p 127, W. J. Vogelsang; The Cambridge History of Iran: Volume 3, p 951, E. Yarshater; 'Ancient Kamboja', in Iran and Islam, Bailey, H. W. etc]

The noted scholars like C. Lassen, S. Levi, M. Witzel, J. Charpentier, La Valle Poussin, A. Hoffman, A. B. Keith, A. A. Macdonnel, G. K. Nariman, E. Kuhn, H. W. Bellow, A. D. Pusalkar, S. Sen, D. R. Bhandarker, S. Thion and others have traced the ethnic name Kamboja in the royal name Kambujiya/Cambujiya of the Old Persian Inscriptions (Cambyses/Kambuses of the Greeks). Kambujiya (also Kambaujiya) was the name of several great Persian kings of Achamenian dynasty. The same name appears as C-n-b-n-z-y in Aramaic, Kambuzia in Assyran, Kambythet in Egyptian, Kam-bu-zi-ia in Akkadian, Kan-bu-zi-ia in Elemite, and Kanpuziya in Susian language.

H. W. Bellow writes:

'Darius succeeded, about 521 B.C to the empire founded by Cyrus (Kurush), and enlarged and consolidated by his son and successor Cambyses (Kambojia, Kambohji). ]-whose mother was called Mandane (Mandana; perhaps a princess of the Mandan tribe), and said to be a Mede, and whose father was called Cambyses (Kambohji; probably a chieftain of the Kamboh tribe) having reduced the Medes and conquered the kingdom of Croesus the Lydian (Lùdi), thereby became master of all the territory extending from the Indus to the Hellespont'.:

— (An enquiry into the Ethnography of Afghanistan H. W. Bellow; also see: Sectarianism and Ethnic Violence in Afghanistan, Musa Khan Jalzai)

Kambujiya III (Cambyses III) is famous for his conquest of Egypt (525 B.C.) and the havoc he had wrought upon this country.

Location of Ancient Kamboja

The scholars are not unanimous on the location of ancient Kamboja. The Kambojas are variously said to have belonged to Khorasan, Balkh, Bokhara (H. H. Wilson); Afghanistan (J. McCrindle, Alexandra's Invasion); East Afghanistan (Dr Stein);Kafiristan to Kashmir (H. C. Raychaudhury, D. R. Bhandarkar); Pamir, Badakshan (Dr J. C. Vidyalankar, Raymond Allchin, Dr G. A. Grierson, Dr S. K. Chatterjee, Dr V. S. Aggarwala); Arachosia (D. C. Sircar, J. Fillozat, E. Benveniste, Michael Witzel); mountains of Gazni (Willford); Sindh/Gujarat (Dr S. K. Aiyanger, Dr P. N. Banerjee); Hindukush/Tibet (Dr V. A. Smith); Tibet [Charles Elliot, Dr Foucher, Dr G. G. Gokhale); and Cambodia (R. D. Banerjee), with their capital at an unidentified place called Dvarka, a name with Maga Associations. Scholars have identified this Dvarka with the modern 'Darwaz city' located in Tajikstan in Central Asia (Ancient India, Dr Rhys David, p 7; Geographical and Economical Studies in the Mahabharata, Dr Motichandra, p 38; Cultural Heritage of India, Vol I, pp 44,51, Dr S. K. Chatterjee; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 118, Dr J. L. Kamboj).

In ancient literature and inscriptions, the Kambojas are frequently listed with the tribes of Uttarapatha such as Gandharas, Yavanas, Madras, Sakas etc. At several places in Mahabharata, the Kambojas are referred to as a tribe of Uttarapatha i.e north or north-west. e.g.

Sanskrit:

Uttarapatha janmanah kirtayishyami tanapi

Yauna kamboja gandharah kirata barbaraih saha

— (MBH 12/201/40)

Sanskrit:

Uttarashchapare mlechchha jana bharatasattama

Yavanashcha sa Kamboja daruna mlechchha jatayah

— (MBH 6/11/63-64)

Sanskrit:

Shakanam pahlavana.n cha daradanam cha ye nripah

Kambojarishika ye cha pashchimanupakash cha ye

— (MBH 5/5/15)

Sanskrit:

udichya kamboja shakaih khashaish cha

— (MBH 5/159/20)

This fact clearly proves that the 'Kamboja' of ancient Sanskrit literature invariably referes to a tribe and country of that name located in the Uttarapatha or north division of ancient India. The country was located beyond Gandhara, in the extreme north-west in Central Asia. Therefore, Kamboja of ancient Sanskrit literature must not be confused with trans-Gangetic Kamboja (or Kambuja) centered at Mekong basin which country came into existence several centuries after Christian era. Cambodia or Kamboja of South East India does not find any reference in ancient Sanskrit literature as is erroneously believed by some writers (cf: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Banerjee).

The most acceptable view is that the ancient Kambojas originally belonged to the 'Galcha' speaking area (the Iranian Pamirs and Badakshan) in Central Asia (Linguistic Survey of India, Vol X, p 455, Dr G. A. Grierson).

Yasaka's Nirukuta (II/2) informs us that verb 'shavati' in the sense 'to go' was used by the Kambojas and Kambojas only (Early Eastern Iran and Atharvaveda, 1980, 92, Dr Michael Witzel; also Nilukuta, Vol I, Sarup).

The modern 'Galcha' language comprises seven main dialects viz. Valkhi, Shigali, Srikoli, Jebaka ( also called Sanglichi or Ishkashim), Munjani, Yidga and Yagnobi.

It has been pointed out that the Galcha dialects spoken in Pamirs and countries on the head waters of Oxus mostly still have the continuants of the ancient Kamboja 'shavati' in the sense 'to go' (Op cit., pp 455-56, 468, 474, 476, 500, Dr G. A. Grierson; India as Known to Panini, p 48, Dr V. S. Aggarwala; Geographical and Economical Studies in the Mahabharata, p 37, Dr Moti Chandra; Bharat Bhumi Aur Uske Nivasi, 1930, pp 297-305, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar).

It has also been pointed out that the former language of Badakshan was a dialect of Galcha which has been replaced with Farsi only in the last few centuries (Op cit, p 456, Dr Grierson).

Yagnobi dialect spoken in Yagnobe province in Zerafshan valley (the Doab of Oxus and Jaxartes) also contains, to this date, a relic from verb 'shavati' of the ancient Kambojan language.

Interestingly, ancient geographer Ptolemy (2nd c) refers to one tribal people he calls 'Komoi (=Kamoi) and Komroi and locates them in the mountainous regions of Sogdiana as far as Jaxartes (J. McCrindle, Ancient India, Trans/edited by Majumdar, 1927, p 268, 275, 278, 284, 325; Central Asiatic Provinces of Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr Seth, Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, p 49, 300, Dr Kamboj).

Ptolmy also calls the region fed by Jaxartes and its tributaries as Komdei. Ammianus Marcellinus calls it as Komadas.

Komudha in Indian traditions is one of the six dvipas stated to be situated beyond the sea. And is also name of mountainous region, north of mount Meru (Pamir). In anterior epic period, this probably was the name given to high table land of the Tartary, to north of Himalaya, from where the Aryans may have pushed their way southwards into Indian Peninsula and preserved the name as a relic of old mountain worship (Thomson). In Purans, it is described as golden mountain in the center of Jambudvipa (Classical Dictionary of India, John Garett, N.Y, 1973, p 392/393].

Dr Buddha Parkash identifies this Komdei of Ptolemy with the Komudha-dvipa of the Puranic literature and connects it with the Iranian Kambojas (India and the World, p 71, Dr Buddha Parkash; also see Central Asiatic Provinces of Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth).

This Komoi of Ptolemy appears to represent the ethnic name Kamboi, a local variant of the Sanskritic/Pali Kamboja or Iranian Kambujiya (cf: prikritic Kamboya of Ashoka's Rock Edicts located in Shahbazgarhi in Peshawer...Yone-Kamboy.esu R.E. XIII; Yona-Kamboya-Gamdharanam R.E. V; also cf: Uttradhyana Sutra 11/16, writing Kamboy for Kamboj).

This identification if true may explain as to why the Yagnobi dialect of Yagnobe province in Zerafshan valley still contains the relics of ancient verb 'shavti' of the Kamboji language.

'The Badakshan Tajiks belong to the same Aryan race as the Tajiks of Galcha region and are the modern representatives of ancient Kambojas.......The Tajiks of Zerafshan valley/Yognobe province are probably the modern representaives of ancient Kambojas...... '(Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar, Dr Moti Chandra, Bharat Bhumi Aur Uske Nivasi, pp 313-14, 226; Bharata Itihaas ki Mimansa, p 335; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, pp 165, 128, Dr Kamboj; The Cultural Heritage of India, pp 44, 51, Dr S. K. Chatterje).

The above discussion leads one to summarize that ancient Kamboja land, to all probability, comprised Pamirs, Badakshan and parts of Tajikstan onto Zerafashan river in the doab of Oxus/Jaxartes of Central Asia. Roughly, on east, it was bounded by Yarkand and/or Kashgar, on west by Bahlika (Uttaramadra), on north-west by Sogudha, on north by Uttarakuru, on south-east by Daradas and on south by Gandhara (cf: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 164, 237, Dr J. Kamboj).

This Kamboja location in Pamir-Badakshan originally suggested by Dr Christian Lassen has been accepted by eminent scholars like Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar, Dr Moti Chandra, Raymond Allchin, Dr A. M Shastri, Dr S. K. Chatterje, G. A. Grierson, R. R. Pandey, Dr. D. Devahuti, Dr B. S. Upadhyaya, Dr J. L. Kamboj and other scholars).

It is also important to note that Kamboja and Bahlika (Bacteria) are mentioned in the same breath in several verses in Mahabharata e.g.

Sanskrit:

Shakah Kambojabahlika Yavanah Paradastatha

— (MBH 7/98/13)

kritavarma tu sahitah Kambojavarbahlikaih .

— (MBH 6/75/17; see also verses 2/27/23-23 etc) .

Valmiki Ramayana also mentions the Kamboja and the Bahlika in the same breath:

Sanskrit:

Kaambhoja.vishhaye jaatair Baahlikaishcha hayottamaiH

— (Ramayana I/6/22)

Kashmir recension of ancient Ramayana has the following reading:

Aratta.Kapisham.Balhim.............(Ramayana, 4/44/23)

Ancient Sanskrit Acharya Kshmendra of Kashmir has put the above reading as follows into his Ramayana Manjri:

Aratta.Bahlika.Kamboja.............(Ramayana Manjri, 4/252).

This not only shows that Kapisha and Kamboja were same countries but also that Kamboja/Kapisha and the Bahlika were adjacent countries/peoples.

Atharvaveda-Parisia also juxtaposes the Kambojas with Bahlikas (Kamboja-Bahlika, AV-Par, 57.2.5; cf Persica-9, 1980, p 106, Dr Michael Witzel), thus further reinforcing the same fact.

This Kamboja-Bahlika association in several ancient sources suggests that the Bahlikas and Kambojas were neighborly tribes in the north-west, and therefore, they must be contiguously located in/around the Oxus country.

The Bahlikas-Madras-Kambojas equation:

The Vamsa Brahmana Aupamanyava Kamboja (1/18) is spoken of as pupil of sage Madrakara, who belonged to Madra tribe. Dr Zimmer as well as authors of Vedic Index postulates a connection between the Uttaramadras and the Kambojas. They were close neighbors in the north-western part of ancient India (Vedic Index, I, p 84-85, 138; India as Known to Panini, 1953, p 50, Dr Aggarwal; Some Kshatrya Tribes, p 232, Dr B. C. Law; Indian as Known to Panini, p 50; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, pp 65, 164, Dr M. R. Singh).

In Aitareya Brahmana (8.14), the Uttarakurus and Uttaramadras are described as living beyond Himalaya (paren himvantam).

Sanskrit:

tasmad atasyam udichya dishi ye ke ca pren himvantam janapada uttarakurva uttaramadra......

— (Aitareya Brahamana, VIII/14).

This probably implies regions lying beyond Hindukush/Trans-Karakoram ranges. Hence the Kambojas as Uttaramadras' neighbors must also be located beyond the Karakoram/Hindukush somewhere.

Madra king Shalya of Mahabharata has been referred to as a Bahlika Pungava i.e foremost among the Bahlikas (MBH I. 67.6; I.112.3).

Princess Madri from Madra Royal family has also been referred to as Bahliki (MBH I. 124. 21).

This implies that in the remote past (Vedic age) the Madras were also the Bahlikas and were originally located in Bahlika (Bacteria).....the eastern parts of Oxus country. These Madras were, in fact, the Uttaramadras of Aitareya Brahmana (VIII/14) (Dr J. Przyluski, Dr A. B. Keith, Dr I. A. Macdonnel, Dr V. S. Aggarwal, Dr M.R. Singh, Dr J. L. Kamboj)

However, in 4th c BC, this Bahlika/Bacteria came under Yavana/Greek political control and thus the land was referenced as Bahlika-Yavana in some of ancient Sanskrit texts.

Kamasutra of Vatsyayana refers to a peculiar custom prevalent among the Bahlika as well as Strirajya countries i.e. of several young men marrying a single woman (Kamasutra p 385). This reference suggests that there was either a tribal closeness or a geographical proximity between the Bahlika and Strirajya people.

Since the Bahlika is attested in the western parts of Oxus country, while the Strirajya was situated in West of Tibet/South of Khotan, the most plausible location for the Kamboja must be in eastern parts of Oxus country i.e in Badakshan and Pamirs.

Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa (5th c AD) informs us that after reducing the Parsikas/Persians (4/65), Raghu's forces moves in north direction from Parsika land (4/66) and encounter the Hunas (4/68) on the banks of Vankshu. The Hunas in 5th c AD were located in west parts of Oxus country i.e in Bacteria. Immediately after reducing the Hunas, Raghu meets the Kambojas (4/69). This suggests that the Kambojas were in close neighborhood to the Hunas and were thus located in eastern parts of Oxus country in 5th c AD. After reducing the Kambojas, Raghu's army ascends Himalayas, advances in south-west direction (obviously via Pamir, Karakoram, Leh-Ladakh, Kashatwar)and meets the Kinnaras and then the Kiratas (in Nepal) thus landing in north India proper. Kalidas's reference to Himalaya/Gauri-guru after Kambojas clearly suggests that the Kambojas were somewhere in eastern parts of Oxus country in Badakshan/Pamirs north of Hindukush/Karakoram.

The Kambojas did not give battle to Raghu (Kambojah samare sodhum tasya viryam aniivarah, Raghu 4.69) but by discretion as better part of valor, sent their embassies with presents of excellent horses and high mounds of (tunga.draviynah.rashyah) including the paipilika gold to sue for peace (Purana, VI, No 1, Jan 1964, Dr V. S. Aggarwal; Some Kshatrya Tribes of Ancient India, p 240, Dr B. C. Law ).

It is noteworthy that Kalidasa's reference to immense treasure (tunga.draviynah.rashyah) presented by Kambojas to Raghu also points to the correctness of above identification of Kamboja in eastern parts of Oxus country (Badakshan-Pamirs) since even now the province of Badakshan is famous for its silver mines and there are still emerald and lapis lazuli mines extant in Kotcha valley of the Galcha speaking Munjan. (India in Kalidasa, 1968, p 61, B. S. Upadhyaya). Arabic sources also make references to famous mines of Wakhan and Anderab (Geographical Econom. Studies, p 46, Dr Motichandra).

The Kámbuka silver of mountain Kambu (located in ancient Kamboja ...see Tribes, Coins and Study, Dr M. K. Sharma, 1972, p 274), probably near Munjan, is also referred to by Kautiliya in his Arathashastra (2/13/15).

Kalidasa's evidence on Kambojas' riches/opulence is also supported from Nirukuta (II/2.8) of Yasaka, which notes the Kambojas as follows:

Sanskrit:

Kambojah Kambalabhojah kamanyiabhoja va kambalah kamaniyo bhavati.....

— (Nirkuta II/2.8)

English:

Kambojas are fond of (bhojah) of blankets (kambala) or they are found of pleasant/beautiful(kamaniya) things. A blanket (kambala) is also a desirable object (kamaniya).

Commenting on the above statement of Yasaka about Kambojas, ancient commentator Acharya Durga noted as under:

Sanskrit:

kamniyani prarthaniyani chaite hi dravayanih upbhunjante parchurratano hi ca desha iti.

— (Acharya Durga on Yasaka's Nirukuta II/2)

English:

They (Kambojas) were so called because they made use of pleasant and beautiful things since there was abundance of 'gems/ratans and precious stones in their country.

also cf. following statement of Sikanda Swami about Kambojas:

Sanskrit:

ashvaratanady va kamaniyameva prayenopabhujiyante

— (Sikanda Swami and Maheshvara on Yasaka' Nirukuta II.2.8)

English:

The Kambojas enjoyed ashvas/horses, ratanas/gems and other pleasant things.

Thus, Kalidasa's reference to river Vamkshu, as well as to the high mounds of gem/ratna rashya (tunga.draviynah.rashyah) from the Kambojas sufficiently supports the Kamboja location in eastern parts of Oxus country comprising the mineral-rich Pamirs and Badaksahan(India in Kalidasa, 1968, p 61, B. S. Upadhyaya; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, pp 129, 248-49, Dr Kamboj)

(cf: Kambojah... yamavishvaropapmah...i.e. extremely rich Kambojas...MBH 7/23/40-42).

Hiuen Tsiang (7th c AD) refers to one Kumito as an independently ruled provincial unit in Pamirs (east of Khotlan) stated to form one of the 17 political provinces in former Tukharistan region. Wu-k'ong refers to it as 'Kiomeche', while T'ang calls it 'Kumi'. Ancient Muslim writers refer to it as Kumed or Komadh. Al-Maqidisi refers to the people living in this region as Kumiji. The scholars have identified this name with Komedon, Cambothi or Kambuson of the Greek writings. Indian texts refer to it as 'Kamboj' (Ref: India and Central Asia, p 25, Dr P. C. Bagchi; cf: Central Asiatic Provinces of Maurya Empires, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; cf India and the World, p 71, Dr Buddha Parkash).

That the Kumito (=Kamboj) of Hiuen Tsiang existed as an independent political territory in/around Pamirs in 7/8th c is also confirmed from Kalhana's Rajatrangini (4/165-166)

King Lalitaditya of Kashmir undertakes to reduce his neighbing countries. He launches war expedition onto uttara (north) direction from Kashmir and first fights with the Daradas to the north-west of Kashmir in Himalaya/Karakoram. Thereafter, he fights with the Kambojas and deprives them of their horses (Rajatrangini 4/165). The Tukharas are next, but they run away without giving a fight, even abandoning their horses in the field (Rajatangini 4/166). Immediately after the Tukharas, he meets the Bhauttas (Tibetans).

In this trail of victories of king Laliditya, Rajatrangini also mentions Uttarakuru, Strirajya (mythical or otherwise) and Pragjyotisha after the Bhauttas.

Interestingly, Rajatrangini as well as V.D also lists the Kambojas among the neighboring tribes of Strirajya.

Now the Uttarakuru to the north of Pamir is attested in Mahabharata in Arjuna's Digvijay expedition of the north-west countries, where the epic specifically refers to (mythical) Uttarakuru (MBH II.28.9-12) situated beyond the lands of Lohas, Parama-Kambojas and the Rshikas (MBH II/27/25).

Mahabharata further attests that the Uttarakurus were located to the south of Nila parvata and to the north of Mt Meru.

Sanskrit:

dakshinena tu nilasya meroh parshve tathottare. /

uttarah Kuravo rajanpunyah siddhanishevitah. 2//

— (MBH 6/7/2)

The Meru of Hindu traditions is identified with Pamir (Dr V. S. Aggarwal, Dr M. R. Singh, Dr J. L. Kamboj, Richard L. Thompson, Bertrand L., Byron Lebeau; Penny Kelly's, H. P. Blavatsky, I. P’iankov' , David Salo, B.B. Kumar .....also see MSN Encarta online).

Nila parvata is probably the north-east range of Tien-shan or the Altai-range.

Ramayana also refers to the Uttara-Kauravas (Ramayana 4-43-38) and suggests their location in trans-Himalayaya region beyond the land of Keechakas/Bamboos, across river Sailoda which is identified with Khotan or the Yarkandh/Sita.

Thus Uttarakuru of Sanskrit tradition probably referred to the region comprising north-west of Sinkiang province of China, the Tien-shan ranges and south-eastern parts of Kirgyzstan.

According to scholars like Dr Aggarwala, the Uttarakuru was located to north of Pamirs in Central Asia and was also famous for its horses of Tittirakalamasha variety (2/28/6;19) (Indian as Known to Panini, p 63).

And according to Dr Michael Witzel, 'Strirajya' was located north of Kashmir and west of Tibet (Early East Iran and Atharvaveda, Persica-9, 1980, p 118, fn 105). It was probably to the south of Khotan.

Thus the above evidence based on Rajatrangini witnesses the Kambojas as simultaneous neighbors to the Daradas located in the north-west of Kashmir (in Karakoram/Himalaya), to the Tukharas (in Balkh and perhaps parts of Badakshan), to the Bhauttas (in Baltistan), to the (mythical) Uttarakuru (in N.W. Sinkiang/Tien-shan/Southern Kyrgizstan ) and to the Strirajya (in south of Khotan, west of Tibet). Obviously, this Rajatrangini evidence places all these people except the Daradas in the trans-Himalayan central Asia.

The above tribal distribution leaves the eastern parts of Oxus country including the Pamirs and parts of Badakshan as the most plausible location for the 'Kumitos' (of Hiuen Tsiang) or the 'Kambojas' (of Kalhana) in 7th/8th c AD. This region is indeed to the north of Daradas and borders with the Tukhara country located in the west as Kalhana's Rajatrangini attests for us.

Dr Sircar also observes: 'Rajatrangini (4/165-166) places the Kambojas along with the Tukharas in the upper Oxus valley including the Balkh and Badakshan' (Purana, Vol V, No 2, July 1963, The Land of Kamboja, p 252, Dr D. C. Sircar) .

The Oxus country was occupied by Tukharas in early second c BC. According Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar, during second c BC, the Tukharas (Yueh-chihs) held political sway over Badakshan-Pamir and the ancient Kamboja land thus became part of Tukharistan. But later, when the fortunes of Yueh-chihs fell, Tukharistan boundaries shrank simply to western parts of Oxus country so that the Pamirian Kambojas again got the former name for their country (Ref: Bharata Itihaas Ki Rup Rekha, p 534, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar; Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 153, 301, Dr J. L. Kamboj).

Arabic geographer Al-Idrisi (1099c-1166c AD], while writing on Badakshan and about its flora, its fauna, its scenic beauty, its quality horses & ponis, its precious stones and mineral wealth etc, then at the end he states that Badakshan shared boundaries with Kanoj. The Kanoj of Idrisi, in fact, is the Sanskrit Kamboj. Due to misplacement of dot, the Kamboj got changed to Kanoj in Persian transcription. Al-Idrisi belonged to 11th c AD. Obviously, the boundaries of ancient Kamboj had considerably shrunken down at times of Idrisi so that he had to differentiate Badakshan from the Kamboj located in its contiguity i.e. Pamirs. Otherwise also, the Kanoj of Idrisi can't be the Kanauj of Uttar Pardesh since the Kanauj of Uttar-Pardesh does not share boundaries with Badakshan and it is also located thousands of miles away from Badakshan.

Parja Bhatta the author of fouth Rajatrangini while writing about history of Moghul dynasty in India writes emperor Babur as a Yavana king from Kambhoja.

Sanskrit:

Kaambhoja.yavaneshen Vabhore.n vipatitah/

tadaiva hastinapuryamebhrahemo nripeshavra// 223//

— (Raghu Nath Sinha, Shukarjatrangini tatha Rajatrangini Sangraha: p 110)

Since Vabur (Babur) was native of Fargana in Central Asia, which region is immediately to the north of Pamirs/Badakshan...the land of ancient Kambojas, this mediaval age evidence furnishes us almost with the precise location of Ancient Kamboja.

Thus, Yuan Chwang, Kalidasa, Kalhana, Idrisi and Parja Bhatt etc all seem to locate the ancient Kamboja in eastern parts of Oxus country, to the north/north-west of Kashmir i.e in Pamirs-Badakshan. There are many more references in ancient Sanskrit literature which also seem to place the Kambojas in Badakshan/Pamirs.

Dr Aggarwala concluded: 'The Kamboja as equivalent to Pamir-Badakshan satisfies all ancient references and data' (Geographical Data in Panini's Ashtadhyayi, J.U.P.H.S., Vol XVI, part I, p 27, Dr V. S. Aggarwala)

During Achamenian rule, some sections of Kambojas from Trans-Hindukush had crossed Oxus/Hindukush and planted colonies on its southern side including Swat valleys and Rajapura/Rajori. This view is beautifully reinforced from the fact that Yidga, a sub-dialect of the Galcha Munjani is still spoken in Ludkoh on the south of Hindukush (cf: op cit, p 455, Dr G. A. Grierson; Ancient Kamboja People and the Country, p 154, Dr Kamboj).

The ancient name of Kabol is Kamboj (Supplementary Glossary, 1889, p 304, Elliot, H, . M). The Kaofu of Hiuen Tsang is 'Kambu' or Kabol or Kamboja and is equivalent to modern Afghanistan (McCrindle, Alexandra's Invasion, p 38, Megasthenes and Arrian, p 190; Chandragupta Maurya and his Times, 1943, p 280, Dr R. K. Mukerjee).

With passage of centuries, the trans-Hindukush Kambojas remained essentially still Iranian in culture and religion, while those in the cis-Hindukush region appear to have come under Indian cultural influence. This probably is the reason as to why the ancient Kambojas are attested to have both Indian as well as Iranian affinities.

There is scriptural evidence showing that like the Kuru/Uttarakuru, Madra/Uttaramadra, China/Parama-China, Yona/Parama-Yona, there were also two Kambojas....one located probably in Pamir/Badakshan and beyond which was known as Parama-Kamboja and the second was located to the south of Hindukush in Paropanisadai region which was known as Kamboja. This view is powerfully substantiated from Mahabharata verses (II.27.23-25) which specifically draw our attention to Kamboja and Parama-Kamboja people:

Sanskrit:

Grihitva tu bala.n saram phalgu chotsrijya pandavah./

Daradansaha KambojairajayatpakashAsanih.//23

praguttara.n disha.n ye cha vasantyashritya dasyavah./

nivasanti vane ye cha tansarvanajayatprabhuh.//24

LohanParamakambojanRishikan uttarAnapi./

sahita.nstanmaharaja vyajayatpakashasanih.25//

— (Mahabharata II/27/23-25)

The above scriptural text relates to Arjuna's Digvijay expedition against the tribes located in the north-western parts of ancient India (MBH 2/27/23-25). Obviously, these verses attest two Kambojas.... one located as neighbors to the Daradas in cis-Hindukush region (Kamboja) and the second as neighbor to the Lohas and Rshikas in the Trans-Hindukush/Trans-oxian regions (Parama-Kamboja).

Thus we see: "The historical truth is that there were two Kambojas"

The above fact is also supported from Ptolemy's Geography which references a geographical term Tambyzoi on the Oxus in Badakshan and also an Ambautai people located on the southern side of Hindukush in the Paropanisadae region (Geography 6.18.3, Dr Witzel; See map in McCrindle, p 8 ). Interestingly, eminent indologists like Dr S. Levi (Indian Antiquary, 1923, p 54) and Dr Michael Witzel (Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, Vol. 5,1999, issue 1 (September)) have identified these Ptolemian 'Tambyzoi' and 'Ambautai' with the Sanskrit Kamboja

(Refs: Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 4; Geographical Data in the Early Puranas, A Critical Study, pp 167, Dr M. R. Singh; Geographical Text of the Puranas, A further Critical Study, Purana Vol VI, No I, Feb 1962, pp 112-46, C. A. Lewis; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 150-157, Dr J. L. Kamboj).

'It appears that the Kambojas were originally a people of the Pamir-Badakshan region who later planted colonies in southern side of Hindukush including Rajori. The later came to be known as Kamboja and the former as it was away from the later became famous as Parama-Kamboja' (Geographical Data in the Early Puranas, a Critical Study, 1978, p 168, Dr M. R. Singh; also Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh, History of Panjab; cf: Sidhant Kaumudi, R. R. Pande, 1966, p 20-22).

The Kambojas whom we see often associated with the Bahlikas in ancient Sanskrit literature, in fact, are the Trans-Hindukush Branch of the Kambojas (Parama-Kambojas). These Kambojas are associated with the Rshikas of Trans-Hindukush. The Rshikas have been identified with the Tukharas/Kushans (Dr Aggarwal, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalanakar).

Obviously the Parama-Kambojas lived in what today comprises the Galcha speaking region of Central Asia. These Kambojas were allied with the Lohas and the Rshikas against Arjuna's troops.

Lohan Paramakambojan-Rishikanuttaranapi.

— (MBH 3/27/25)

The Kambojas whom we see aligned with the Daradas against Arjuna were the cis-Hindukush Kambojas. These are the Kambojas whom we often find listed with the Yavanas, Gandhars and the Daradas (Yona-Kamboja-Gandharanam......Ashoka's R.E V; Yone-Kambojesu....R.E XIII; Yona-Kamboja-Gandhara ...MBH 12/207/43).

These Kambojas have been grouped with the Daradas in Arjuna's war expedition against the countries of Uttarapatha (MBH 2/27/23).

Daradansaha Kambojairajayat pakashasanih

— (MBH 2/27//23)

They are the Kambojas of Rajapura/Abhisara (modern Rajori-Poonch) whom Karna had also earlier fought with and defeated (Mahabharata 7/4/5).

Karna-Rajapuram -gatva-Kambojah-nirjitastava..

— (MBH 7/4/5).

The political head-quarters of cis-Hindukush Kambojas at the time of Mahabharata were at Rajapura/modern Rajori (For Rajapura = Rajori, see: Yuan Chwang, Vol I, p 248, Watters; Ancient Geography of India, 1924, p 148 Cunnigham; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133, Dr Raychaudhury)

Later, some sections of the Kambojas had moved still further onto Arachosia, which fact is attested from Aramaic version of 'Shar-i-Kuna inscriptions' of king Ashoka found in Kandhar where the Aramaic version of the inscriptions is specifically attributed to the Kambojas.(Dr D. C. Sircar, E. Benveniste, J. Filliozat, Dupont Sommer, D Schlumberger, L. Robert).

Dr Witzel therefore, locates the Kambojas from Kabol valley down to Arachosia (Persica-9, p 92, fn 81).

The Kambojas - A Kshatriya Tribe

The earliest and most powerful reference endorsing the Kshatryahood of the Kambojas is Panini's Ashtadhyayi.

Panini (5th c BC) refers to the Kamboja Janapada and mentions it as one of the fifteen powerful Kshatriya Janapadas of his times, inhabited and ruled by Kamboja Kshatryas. e.g:

Sanskrit:

[4.01.168] Janapada.shabdat.kshatriyad aÑ

[4.01.175] Kambojal.luK

— (Panini's Ashtadhyayi, 4.1.168, 175)

(Refs: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 29-31, 200, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Indian as Known to Panini, 1953, p 427, Dr Aggarwal)

This is the most powerful evidence attesting that the ancient Kambojas were Kshatriyas or wariors by professions.

Harivamsa informs us that the clans of Kambojas, Sakas, Pahlavas, Yavanas etc were formerly Kshatryas. It was king Sagara who deprived the Kambojas and these other tribes from performing the Svadhyaya and Vasatkara (Harivamsa, 14). It is also interesting to note that Harivamsa calls this group of Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas as Kshatrya-pungava i.e foremost among the Kshatryas.

Manusmriti informs us that the tribes of Kambojas etc were originally noble Kshatryas but were gradually degraded to the status of Shudras on account of their omission of the sacred rites and of their not consulting the Brahamanas ((verses X/43-44).

Arthashastra of Kautiliya (11/1/04) states that the 'Kshatrya Shrenis' (Corporations of Warriors) of the Kamboja, Surashtra and some other countries lived by agriculture, trade and by weilding weapons. From this statement also, it is clear that the Kambojas were Kshatryas (Dr B. C. Law).

Mahabharata also specifically notes that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc were originally noble Kshatryas, but later on, got degraded to barbaric status for not following the Brahmanas and due to not performing the sacred rituals (verses 13/33/31-32].

Kamath Kamboj of Mahabharata is referred to as one of the foremost Kshatrya kings (kShatriya shreShThA) present at the inaguration ceremony of Indraprastaha arranged by king Yudhishtra (MBH 2/4/21-22)

Sudakshina Kamboj, the brave king of Kambojas had joined the Bharata war leading one Akshauhini army comprising the Kamboja, Yavana and Shaka warriors. Sudakshina was the chief Sanapati of this formidable joint army of Kambojas, Yavanas and Sakas, which army has been likened to a mass of loury clouds accompanying the storm!

Sanskrit:

vibhuyamana vatena bahurupa ivambudah/

Sudakshinashcha Kambojo Yavanaishcha Shakaistatha//

upajagama Kauravyamakshauhinya visham pate/

tasya sena samavayah shalabhanamivababhau// .

— (MBH 5/19/21-23)

Dr Law: 'We thus find the Kambojas leading a very large and powerful army to the field of Kurukshetra and laying down their lives like valiant Kshatryas which they were' (Some Kshatrya Tribes of Ancient India, p 247, Dr B. C. Law).

The legend of divine sword detailed in Shanti parva of Mahabharata also powerfully endorses the Kshatryahood of the Kambojas. The sword, as a symbol of Kshatryahood was awarded to a certain Kamboja king by Kuvalashava alias Dhundhumara, the celebrated king of Kosala, who in turn, had passed it on to king Muchukunda (a Yavana king?).

Sanskrit:

Dhundhumarachcha Kambojo Muchukundastato.alabhat

MuchukundanMaruttashcha Maruttadapi Raivatah

— (MBH 12/166/77-78)

Bhagvatam Purana (verse 2.7.35) references a king of Kamboja and calls him as powerfully armed and mighty warrior.

Sanskrit:

ye va mrdhe samiti-salina atta-capah kamboja-matsya-kuru-srinjaya-kaikayadyah

yasyanty adarashnam alam bala-partha-bhima vyajahvayena harinah nilayam tadiyam

— (Srimada Bhgavatam 2.7.35)

There are numerous references in the Puranas, Mahabharata, Ramayana and other ancient Sanskrit and Pali literature which powerfully document the Kshatryahood of the Kambojas.

Hence it is safe to conclude that the Indianised version of the Iranian Kambojas belonged to the Kshatrya varna in the Indo-Aryan Society.

Kambojas in Indian Traditions

Panini's Ashtadhyayi

As stated before, Panini, in his Ashtadhyayi, notes the Kamboja as one of the fifteen prominent Kshatrya Janapadas in the north-west division.

Sanskrit:

[4.01.168] Janapada.shabdat.kshatriyad aÑ

[4.01.169] Salveya.Gandhari.bhyan cha

[4.01.170] dvinaC.Magadha.Kalinga.Surama.sadn

[4.01.171] vrddhait.Kosala.Ajada.Ñyan

[4.01.172] Kuru.nadi.bhyo.rayah

[4.01.173] Salvaavayava.Pratyagratha.Kalakuta.Asmakad iÑ

[4.01.174] te tadrajah

[4.01.175] Kambojal.luK

[4.01.176] striyam Avanti.Kunti.kurubhyas.cha

[4.01.177] aTascha

— (Panini's Ashtadhyayi, 4.1.168-177)

Sutra IV.1.168 (Janapada.shabdat.kshatriyad aÑ) is important. Grammatically, it teaches that the affix aÑ comes after a word which is both the name of a country and a Kshatriya tribe. Here the identity of Janapadas and the powerful Kshatriya clans settled there is repeated. These ruling Kshatriyas inhabiting the Janapadas were, as we are informed by Katyayana (2nd c BC), governed by two-fold constitutions; some were monarchies (ekarjat) and others were Sanghas or Republics:

Sanskrit:

Kshatriyad ekarjat Sangha-pratishedhartham,

— (Katyayana's vartika V.1.168.1)

The kings who ruled over these Janapadas were Kshatriyas and the sutra 4.1.174 (te tadrajah) teaches us that same word dentoted both the a descendent of the Kshatriyas i.e a citizen and their king:

Sanskrit:

Kshatriya.samana.shabdat janapadat tasya rajanyapatyavat

— (Katyayana's vartika V.1.168.3)

(Ref: India as Known to Panini, 1953, p 437, Dr V. S. Aggarwala)

The above discussion by Dr Aggarwala is applicable to all the Janapadas mentioned by Panini (IV.1.168-177) except the Kamboja.

For Kamboja (and only the Kamboja) Panini recommends Luk of prataya aÑ (sutra 4.1.175: Kambojal-Luk) which importantly informs us of an EXCEPTION for the KAMBOJAS such that the derivative names to denote the Kshatriya Descendent as well as the Kshatryia ruler for Kamboja do not need affix aÑ after the Janapada word Kamboja.

This means that the Janapada word KAMBOJA itself denotes not only the KAMBOJA COUNTRY and the KAMBOJA KSHATRIYA TRIBE, but unlike rest of the 14 Kshatriya Janapadas, it also denotes the DESCENDENTS OF KAMBOJA KSHATRIYAS as well as the KSHATRIYA RULER of the KAMBOJA Janapada.

Thus, the rule to denote Kshatriya descendents as well as the rulers in respect of Kambojas differ from rest of the 14 ruling Kshatriya tribes. This exceptional form is applicable to KAMBOJA ONLY.

(Refs: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, p 29-31, Dr J. L. Kamboj; cf : Carmichael Lectures, 1918, pp 6-7, Dr D. R. Bhandarkar; Some Kshatrya Tribes of ancient India, p 234, Dr B. C. Law; Panini Kaleen Bharat (Hindi), 1955, p 61; India as Known to Panini, p 427, Dr V. S. Aggarwal; cf: Early East Iran and Atharvaveda, Persica, 1980, ffn 47, Dr Michael Witzel).

Katyayana also supplements the sutra IV.1.175 of Panini with a vartika as follows:

Sanskrit:

KambojAdhibhyo-lug-vachanam Chadadyartham.

— (Katyayana's vartika V.1.175.1)

which informs us that like the Kamboja, the words like Choda, Kadera and Kerala also denote each not only the country and the Kshatrya tribe inhabiting the country, but also the king ruling over it (op cit, p 6-7, Dr Bhandarkar; Op cit, p 234, Dr B. C. Law) .

The Ganapatha 178 on Panini's rule II.1.72 - 'Mayuravyamsakadi' informs us that the Kambojas and the Yavanas observed a social custom of supporting short-cut head-hair:

Sanskrit:

Kamboja-mundah yavana-mundah

i.e shaved headed Kambojas, shaved headed Yavanas.

This same fact is also conveyed by the Mahabharata:

Sanskrit:

mundanetanhanishyami danavaniva vasavah.

pratigyam parayishyami Kambojaneva ma vaha.

— (MBH 7/119/23)

as well as numerous Puranic literature.e.g.

Sanskrit: yavananam shirah sarvam kambojanam tathaiva cha.

— (Brahama Purana, verse 8.48)

Mahabharata Traditions

Adiparva (1/67/31-32) references a powerful king of Kambojas called Chandravarma, of whom the Mahabharata says as follows:

Sanskrit

candras.tu.ditija.zrestho.loke.taaraa.adhipa.upamah. /

Candra.Vermati vikhiyaatah Kambojanam.nra.dhipah.// 32

— (MBH, 1/67/31-32 Gorakhpore, Vulgate)

Translation:

The foremost among the sons of Diti known by the name of Chandra and handsome as the lord of the stars himself became on earth noted as Chandravarman, the king of the Kambojas

In Sabhaparva (MBH 2/4/22), we learn of another king of Kambojas called Kamath Kamboj who is counted among the principal Kshatriya guests who had joined Yudhistra at the inauguration ceremony of the kingly palace at Indraprastha

Sanskrit:

tathaiva kshatriya shreshtha dharmarajamupasate./ 20

kakshasenah kshitipatih kshemakashchaparajitah./.

Kambojarajah Kamathah kampanashcha mahabalah.// 22

— (MBH 2/4/20-22)

The ancient kings of Kambojas were all known as 'Kamboja' (Panini Ashtadhyayi 4/1/175). Long ago, this country was ruled by a king named 'Kamboja'. In Mahabhara Shantiparva (MBH 12/166/77), we learn that this Kamboja king was awarded the prized sword by Dhundhumara aka Kuvalashava, the celebrated king of Ayudhya:

Sanskrit:

Dhundhumarachcha Kambojo Muchukundastato.alabhat .//77

::—        (MBH 12/166/77) 

Perhaps, it was from this king of 'Kamboja' that the country came to be called Kamboja (Puranic Encyclopaedia, by Vettam Mani)

The king of Kambojas had taken part in the Rajasuya sacrifice of Yudhishtra. Also the Kamboja king was present at Syamantapapanchaka at the time of Solar eclipse (Srimad-Bhagavatam X/75.12; X/82.13).

Sudakshina of Kamboja had participated in the swayamvara of princess Draupadi's of Panchala (MBH 1/185/13).

Among the Kshatriya tribes in the great Epic, the Kambojas occupy a very prominent place. They were allies of Duryodhana and by their bravery, and especially the prowess of their king Sudakshina (MBH 5/166/1-3), they had rendered great service to Kuru side in the long drawn battle at Kurukshetra (Some Kshatriya Tribes of Ancient India, p 241, Dr B. C. Law).

With his army comprising Kambojas as well as the Sakas and Yavanas which looked like loury multicolored rainclouds moved by gusty winds, Sudakshina, the chief of the Kambojas had started his march on to the aide of Kaurvas. The mass of his one akshauni army looked indeed like a swarm of locusts, which on reaching Kurukshetra had merged with the Kaurava army and disappeared among them.

Sanskrit:

vibhuuamana vatena bahurupa ivambudah/

Sudakshinashcha Kambojo yavanaishcha shakaistatha.// 21

upajagama kauravyamakshauhinya visham pate/

tasya sena samavayah shalabhanamivababhau.// 22

— (MBH 5/19/21-22)

Sudakshina Kamboj was the chief Sanapati of the composite formidable army of the Kambojas, Yavanas and the Sakas.

Sudakshina was also one of the eleven mighty, powerful, illustrious and glorified Generals or Sainapatis of the composite Kaurava army.

Sanskrit:

Shakunih Saubalah Shalyah Saundhavo.atha Jayadrathah./

VindAnuvindavAvantyau Kambojashcha Sudakshinah.// 15

Shrutayudhashcha Kalingo Jayatsenashcha Parthivah./

Rihadbalashcha Kaushalyah Kritavarma cha Satvatah.// 16

dashaite purushavyaghrah shurah parighabahavah./

akshauhininam patayo yajvano bhuridakshinah.// 17

— (MBH 6/16/15-17)

In the enumeration of great heroes on Kuru side, Bhishma extols the prowess of Sudakshina of Kambojas of whom he says: ' in my opinion, Sudakshina of Kambojas is equal to a Ratha and he will certainly fight in the battle with the enemy desiring the success of your objects. The prowess of this lion among the chariot warriors exerted on your behalf , O best among the kings, will be seen by the Kurus, in battle as equal to that of Indra himself. The best of the chariot warriors under him are strikers with fierce force. The Kambojas, O great king, will cover the land like a swarm of locusts '(Op cit, p 242, Dr B. C. Law).

Sanskrit:

Sudakshinastu Kambojo ratha ekaguno matah ./

tavartha siddhimaka~Nkshanyotsyate samare paraih. //1

etasya rathasi.nhasya tavarthe rajasattama. /

parakrama.n yathendrasya drakshyanti kuravo yudhi. //2

etasya rathavamsho hi tigmavegapraharinam. /

Kambojanam maharaja shalabhanamivayatih. // 3

— (MBH 5/165/1-3)

Duryodhana in his message to Pandavas gives a very important place to the Kambojas by placing them side by side with the greatest heroes on his side: thus he says that his immense army with Bhishma as the current which cannot be crossed, with Drona as the alligator which cannot be approched, with Karna and Salya as a swarm of small fishes and the Kamboja as mouth giving out flames, was a veritable truth (Op cit., p 242, Dr B. C. Law).

Sanskrit:

Bhishmavegamaparyantam Dronagrahadurasadan./

Karna-Salyajhasavartam Kambojavadava mukham. //40

— (MBH 5/160/40)

Duryodhana again extolls the prowess of Sudakshina of Kamboja as well as of Bhishma, Drona Acharya, Kripa Acharya, Kritvarma, Bhurisravas, Vikarna and Bhagadatta etc, describing them all as 'Great Maharathis, high born, recklessly fearless and, in might and fight more than a match to even the three worlds (united together).

Sanskrit:

tva.n cha Dronashcha Shalyashcha Kripo Draunistathaiva cha../

Kritavarma cha hardikyah Kambojashcha Sudakshinah..//31

Bhurishrava Vikarnashcha Bhagadattashcha viryavan../

maharathah samakhyatah.kulaputra.stanutyajah..//32

trayanamapi lokanam paryapta iti me matih../

— (MBH 6/65/31-33)

Brave Sudakshina was one of the few Maharathas or great heroes on the field (Op cit., p 241, Dr B. C. Law) and has numerously been referred to as Mahabali/Maharathi, Purushavyaghrah, Shurah, durdharsha (invincible), Parighabahavah, Mahabahu, or a great hero, invincible in the battle field even by the gods.

Sanskrit:

Sudakshina.n tu rajendra Kambojanam maharatham. //66

— (MBH 6/45/66)

Shrutakarma tatah kruddhah Kambojanam maharatham.// 68

— (MBH 6/45/68)

Kambojarajo balavanstatah pashchat.Sudakshinah .// 14

— (MBH 6/108//14)

Kambojarajo balavan varayamasa sa.nyuge.// 18

— (MBH 6/111/18)

Kambojam pashya durdharsha.n Kambojastaranochitam ./

— (MBH 11/25/01)

Besides with others, Sudakshina Kamboj had displayed a very memorable ferocious duels with Shrutakarma (6/45/63-65), Abhimanyun (MBH 6/110/15, 6/111/18-21) and Arjuna (7/92/61-75).....all of them stated as great Maharathis of the Pandava Army.

Sudakshina had fought very fiercely and valiantly until slain by Arjuna on 15th day of the war (MBH 7/92/61-76). While fighting, he roared like a lion (sinha.nadamathanadat) and gave Arjuna a very tough fight (MBH 7/92/61-76). In the final and deadly duel, Sudakshina had seriously wounded Arjuna and sent him into a terrible swoon but finally was overcome and fell a magnificent martyr to Kuru cause.

Sudakshina was indeed one of the great heroes of Mahabharata war. Besides Bhishama and Duryodhana, even Karana and Vasudeva have highly acknowledged the great role played by Sudakshina as well as the Kamboj soldiery.

After the war was won, Vasudeva, congratulates Arjuna saying thus:

Oh weilder of the Gandiva! who except you was capable of conquering these mighty warriors in the battlefield? Numerous were the warriors seen in this war, each of whom of great prowess, each of whom was no less than god Indra himself, but none of those could stand before you for long. O Arjuna! who except you in this world could have clashed with the powerful Maharathis like Drona, Bhishma, Bhagadatta, Vinda-Anuvinda of Avanti, Sudakshina Kamboj, Mahabali Shrutayu, Acutayu etc in the battlefield and still be alive!

Sanskrit:

ko hi drona.n cha bhishmam cha bhagadattam cha marisha.

vindanuvindavavantyau Kamboja.n cha sudakshinam.//19

shrutayusham mahaviryamachyutayushameva cha.

pratyudgamya bhavetkshemi yo na syattvamiva kshami //20.

— (MBH 8/72/19-20)

When the enemy admires his opponents, it really reflects the realities..it's no false praise.

Mourning the death of Sudakshina, Gandhari addresses Vasudeva thus:

Behold how that irresitible ruler of the Kambojas with shoulders like those of a bull, though deserving of being stretched at his ease on the Kamboja blankets, is now lying amid the dust:

Sanskrit:

Kambojam pashya durdharsha.n Kambojastaranochitam ./

shaysnamr^ishabhaskandha.n hatam pa.nsushu madhava .//

— (MBH 11/25/01)

Sudakshina's younger brother (addressed as Kamboj) had also participated in the destructive war of Kurukshetra and had fought ferocious duels on Kaurava's behalf. This prince was also finally slain fighting with Arjuna on 17th day of the war (MBH 8/56/111-114). Like Sudakshina Kamboja, this young prince is also decribed as very tall and exceedigly handsome, having a face as beautiful as the full moon and eyes resembling lotus petals. As this prince fell fighting, it appeared as if a column of gold or a summit of the golden Sumeru had collapsed. The fact that this young Kamboja prince had survived 16 days of destructive war shows him to have been an accomplished warrior.

Sanskrit:

hastyashvarathapattina.n vratannighnantamarjunam .

sudakshinadavarajah sharavrishtyabhyavivrishat .. //111

asyasyato.ardhachandrabhya.n sa bahu parighopamau .

purnachandrabhavaktra.n cha kshurenabhyahanachchhirah .//112.

sa papata tato vahatsvalohita parisravah .

manahshila gireh shringa.n vajrenevavadaritam ..//113.

sudakshinadavaraja.n kambojam dadrishurhatam .

pramshu.n kamalapatrakshamatyartham priyadarshanam .

kanchana~stambhasa nkasham bhinna.n hemagirim yathA .//114.

— (MBH 8/56/111-114)

The Mahabharata repeatedly talks of the mighty and immense army of the Kambojas, calling it a flooded river, a swarm of locusts covering the lands, a grand army of wrathful warriors etc etc.

Sanskrit:

prayayau tvaritasturna.n Kambojanam mahachamum // 61

— (MBH 7/113/61).

jalasandharnava.n tirtva Kambojanam cha vahinim'.// 9

— (MBH 7/120/9).

Sudakshinashcha Kambojo Yavanaishcha Shakaistatha// 21

tasya sena samavayah shalabhanamivababhau./ 22

— (MBH 5/21-22)

Kambojanam maharaja shalabhanamivayatih// 3

— (MBH 5/166/3)

Akshauhinyashcha sanrabdha dhartarashtrasya bharata/ 45

— (MBH 7/112/43-45)

The Kamboja army has been described as unconquerable in the battle:

Sanskrit:

Kambojasainyan vidravya durjayam yudhi bharata

— (MBH, 7/23/16)

There are also numerous references to countless Maharathis or great heroes of the Kambojas:

Sanskrit:

prayayau tvaritasturna.n Kambojanam mahachamum/

sa tatra bahubhih shuraih samniruddho maharathaih//.

— ((MBH 7/113/61))

Kamboja Maharathis have been described as strikers of fierce force.

Sanskrit:

etasya rathavamsho hi tigmavegapraharinam.

— (MBH 5/165/3)

Dronaparva section of Mahabharata terms the entire Kamboja soldiery as scholars of Vedas (kritavidyashcha), very brave, firmly devoted to the science of weapons, highly united and self-sacrificing for each other (7/112/43-44).

In the hot battle field, the Kambojas have been described as 'elephants gone berserk' (durvarana nama Kamboja); Kambojas of fierce deeds, war-intoxicated warriors, biting their lips in rage as they fight (damshitah krurakarmanah Kamboja yuddhadurmadah); Kambojas as Death-Personified (samana.mrityavo); the strikers of fierce force (tigmavegahpraharinah); deadly like the cobras (tikshnai.rashivishopamah); terrible like Yama the god of death and opulent like Kuber i.e very rich (yama vaishravanopamah); the masters of horsemanship (ashva.yudha.kushalah) etc etc.

Govind Krishana Pilley aptly remarks them "as war loving Kambojas" (Trasditional History of India, A digest, p 300)

The Katas and Kambojas living in the north-west have been described as expert in warefare and famous for their courage. (Hindu Polity, Ordinance of Manu, Dr Arthur Coke Burnell, , 1972, p 29).

Puranic Traditions

According to Harivamsa Purana (14.01-21) and numerous other Puranic literature (e.g Vayu Purana 88/127-43, Brahmapurana (VIII.33-48) etc), Iksváku king Bahu of Ayudhya was driven out of his dominions by Haihayas and Talajanghas with the assistence of Kamboja, Saka, Yavana, Pahlava and Parada Ayudhajivin hordes from Uttarapatha.

Sagara, son of Bahu was born in exile and as he grew up, he learnt of his father's fate from her mother and decided to punish his enemies. He raised a powerful army and invaded Ayudhiya. After a fierce fight, Sagara was able to defeat the alliance. He had totally destroyed the Haihayas and Talajanghas, and was about to annihilate the five assisting hordes when Sagara's priest Vasishta intervened. Vasishta advised Sagara not to destroy these hordes but let them go after divesting them of their Kshatryahood. King Sagara, listening to his spirtual guide, forced the Kambojas and Yavanas to shave their heads full, the Sakas to shave half of their heads, the Pahlavas to grow beards and the Paradas to wear their hair free. He also forbade these former Kshatriyas from performing Svadhyaya and Vasatkara, thus divesting them of their Kshatryahood i.e turning them into Vratyas.

Sanskrit:

sagaraH svam pratijna.n tu gurorvakya.n nishamya cha./

dharma.n jaghana tesha.n vai veshan anya.nshchakara ha.//19

ardha.n shakana.n shiraso mundayitva vyasarjayat./

Yavanana.n shirah sarva.n Kambojana.n tathaiva cha.//20

parada muktakeshashcha pahlvan shmashrudharinah./

nihsvadhyayavashatkarah kritastena mahatmana.//21

— (Harivamsa 14.19-21)

This group of five is referred to as the "five hordes" (pañcagana) and are often branded as mlechcha barbarians from the north-west in most of ancient Sanskrit literature (Myths of the Dog-Man, p 119, David Gordon White)

This story appears to have been altered by puranic writers in order to explain cetain peculiarities of these foreign tribes by suggesting that their peculiar characteristics were due to their defeat at the hands of king Sagara (cf: Some problems of Kushana and Rajput Hisory, p 73, Dr Sircar; Pre-Aryan and pre-Dravidian in India, p 87, S. Levi etc).

The expression half-shaven (or shaven full) does not mean 'shaven over half or full of the head', but that their hair was cropped short. This was normal custom of these peoples just as it is among many people in West today and copying the Westerners among civilized people of Asia as well. The Indians who normally wore their hair long must have invented the story of Sagara degrading them by having their heads shaven or half shaven to show their disapproval of the custom (History of Ceylone, Vol I, part I, p 92, Dr S. Parnavitana; cf: The Indo-Greeks, Clarendon Press, 1957, p 1-2, A. K. Narain).

It is obvious that the Hindus, who by religion were ordained to have a sikha or a top knot looked askance towards those who had all their hair cropped short (cf: Geographical and Economical Studies in Mahabharata, Upayana Parva, J.U.P.H.S. Vol XVI., Part II, 1943, p 41), Dr Moti Chandra)

Kautilya's Arthashastra

Arthashastra (2/13/10) informs us that Kambuka silver was extracted from mountain Kambu.

Sanskrit:

tuttha.udgatam gaudikam Kambukam cakravalikam ca rupyam. //10

— (Kautiliya Arathashastra, 2/13/10)

Scholars identify this mountain Kambu in Afghanistan . i.e Ancient Kamboja (Tribes, Coins & Studies, Dr M. K. Sharma, Univ of Magadhah, 1972, p 274). The Silver mines of Badakshan have been famous since Ancient times. The Arabic historians refer to silver mines of Anderab/Vakhan (Geog. & Economic Studies in Mahabharata, J.U.O.H.S. Vol XVI, Pt II, p 46, Dr Moti Chandra; Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, p 246, Dr Kamboj; Sindhaant Kaumadhi, Arthaprakashaka, Acharya R. R. Pande, 1966, pp 20-22).

There are quality mines of silver still extant in Munjan/Badakshan.

Arthashastra (2/30/29) lists horses of several countries including Kamboja and puts the Kamboja horses at the head of list of best horses.

Sanskrit:

prayogyanam uttamah Kamboja.Saindhava.Aratta.Vanayujah,

madhyama Bahliika.Papeyaka.Sauviraka.Taitalah,

shesah pratyavarah //

— (Kautiliya Arathashastra, 2/13/10)

Translation

The (horse) breed of Kámbhoja, Sindhu, Aratta, and Vanáyu countries are the best; those of Báhlíka, Pápeya, Sauvira, and Taitala, are of middle quality; and the rest ordinary (avaráh).

And more importantly, the Arthashastra informs us that the Kambojas followed republican constitution. Kautiliya contrasts the 'varta.shastr.opajivin' (martial republican) sanghas with 'raja.shabd.opajivin' (king-council) sanghas in his Arthashastra (11/1/4-5) and includes the Kamboja and Surashtra Kshatryas in the 'varta-shastr.opajivin' or 'martial republics' catagory.

Sanskrit:

Kamboja.Suraastra.Ksatriya.shreny.aadayo varta.shastra.upajiivinah./

Licchivika.Vrjika.Mallaka.Madraka.Kukura.Kuru.Panchala.adayo raaja.shabda.upajiivinah. //

— (Kautiliya Arathashastra, 11.1.03)

i.e Corporations of warriors (Kshatrya shrenis) of the Kamboja and Surashtra and some other nations live by agtriculture, trade and by weilding weapons. The corporations of Lichchhivika,Vrijika, Mallaka, Mudraka, Kukura, Kuru, Pánchála and others live by the title of a Rája. (Kautiliya's Arathashastra, 1956, p 407, Dr R. Shamashastri).

The martial republics mentioned in Arthashastra are headed by the Kambojas (Dr Jayswal, Hindu Polity, p 52 1978).

Kautiliya further informs us that the 'shastr-opajivin' Shrenis or Corporations (of the Kambojas and Surashtras etc...verse 11/1/04) were the most heroic (Shreni.pravira.purusanam....verse 7/14/27) and recommended them as best fit for military recruitment (Arthashastra 7/14/26-28; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 263, 290, Dr J. L. Kamboj; History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 57, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr R. C. Majumdar; cf: Comprehensive History of ancient India, Vol II, p 3, Dr N. K. Shastri).

The republicanism of the Kambojas is also attested from the Rock Edicts of king Ashoka (araja-vishaya...R. E. XIII) as well as from great epic Mahabharata, which refers to many Ganas or Sanghas of the Kambojas fighting on Kauravas side. e.g.

Sanskrit:

Narayanashcha Gopalah Kambojana.n cha ye ganah.

Karnena vijitah purva.n sangrame shura sammatah.

— (MBH 7/91/39-39)

Translation:

".....the numerous Ganas/Sanghas of the Kambojas all of whom were regarded as very brave in battle field and whom Karna had earlier vanquished...."

Buddhist Literature

Anguttara Nikaya refers to Kamboja as one of the sixteen great nations of ancient times ((Aguttara Nikaya (P.T.S.), Vol. I. p 213; Vol. IV. pp 252, 256, 261).

The same fact is also contained in one of the oldest Pali commentary, the Chullaniddesa (Age of Imperial Unity, 1951, p 1, Dr B. C. Law; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 7, K. D. Sethna).

Majjhima Nikaya informs us that in the land of Yavanas, Kambojas and some other border lands, there were only two classes of people...Aryas and Dasas...the masters and slaves. The master could become slave and vice versa (Majjhima Nikaya, 2/149). e.g:

Pali:

evam bho sutam me yona-kambojesu ajjesu ca paccantimesu janapadesu

dveva vannaa ayyo ceva daaso ca. ayyo hutvaa daaso hotii, daaso

— (Majjhima Nikaya 43.1.3)

Bhuridatta Jataka refers to the Kambojas as following the non-Aryan (i.e Zoroastrian) customs like killing poisnous insects, moths, snakes and worms--which is recognised as Zoroastrian from passages in Mazdean books like the Vedevat (XIV.5-6) and from the remarks of Herodotus (I.140).

Manusmriti

Manusmriti (II/39) informs us that, if after the last prescribed time the people (twice-born)remain uninitiated, they become Vratyas, fallen from Savitri, discarded by the Aryans.

Sanskrit:

ata uurdhvam trayo 'apy ete yathaakaalam a.samskrtaah. /

saavitriipatitaa vraatyaa bhavanty aaryavigarhitaah. //39

— (Manusmriti II/39)

Manusmriti (verse X/20) informs us that those (sons) whom the twice-born beget on wives of equal caste, but who, not fulfilling their sacred duties, are excluded from the Savitri (initiation), one must also designate by the appellation Vratyas.

Sanskrit:

dvijaatayah savarnaasu janayanty a.vrataams tu yaan. /

taan saavitriiparibhrastaan vraatyaan iti vinirdizet. //20

— (Manusmriti X/20)

Thus, from Manusmriti verses II/39 and X/20, we learn that those who do not observe sacraments of initiation and fail to observe sacred brahmanical codes and regulations even though whom the twice-born beget on wives of equal caste, they fall in the category of Vratyas i.e degraded Brahamans, degraded Kshatriyas, or degraded Vaishayas.

And finally, Manusmriti (X/43-44) informs us that, in consequence of the omission of sacred Brahmanical rituals/codes and of their not heeding to the Brahmanans, the following noble Kshatriyas have gradually sunk in this world to the state of vrishalatam i.e become degenerate Kshatriyas: the Paundrakas, Chodas, Dravidas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Shakhas, Paradhas, Pahlavas, Chinas, Kiratas and Daradas.

Sanskrit:

shanakaistu kriya-lopadimah Kshatriya - jatayah. /

vrashalatvam gata loke brahmna-darshanen cha. //43

Paundrash-Chaudra-Dravidah-Kamboja-Yavanah-Shakah. /

Paradah Pahlavash-Chinah Kirata Daradah Khashah. //44

— (Manusmritti, X/43-44)

Based on these statements of Manusmriti, scholars have listed the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Kiratas, Chinas and other Kshatriyas as degraded Kshatriyas, Vratyas. (See: Origin and Growth of Caste in India, Vol I, 1968, p 121-122, Dr N. K. Dutt).

A very similar information on the Kamboja, Saka, Yavana and other Kshatryas is also contained in the Anusasanaparva of Mahabharata (MBH verse 13/33/21) which also states that due to neglect of Brahmanas (and sacred Brahmanical codes and regulations as a consequence), these Kshatriya clans had attained to vrishala status i.e become degraded Kshariyas or Vratyas.

Sanskrit:

Brahmana yam prasha.nsanti purushah sa pravardhate .

brahmanairyah parakrushtah parabhuyatkshanaddhi sah .// 20.

Shaka Yavana Kambojas tastah Kshatriya jatayah .

vrishalatvam parigata Brahmananamadarshanat .// 21.

— (Mahabharata 13/33/20-21)

cf: also:

Sanskrit:

Mekala Dramidah Lathah Paundrah Konwasirah /.

Shaundika Darada Darvash Chaurah Shabara Barbarah .//17.

Kirata Yavanashchaiva tastah Kshatriya jatayah. /.

vrishalatvamanuprapta brahmananamadarshanat .//18.

— (Mahabharata 13/35/17-18)

Translation:

The Mekalas, the Dravidas, the Lathas, the Paundras, the Konwasiras, the Saundikas, the Daradas, the Darvas, the Chauras, the Sabaras, the Barbaras, the Kiratas, the Yavanas, and numerous other tribes of Kshatriyas, have become degraded into the status of Vrishaltam i.e degraded Kshatriya or Sudras through the wrath of Brahmanas)

The consequences of neglecting the Brahmanas are beautifully highlighted in the epic which states that the descendents of those Kshatriyas who neglect the Brahmanas soon become Dasyus and Mlechchas (MBH 12/73/9-10).

Sanskrit:

naisham putra vedamadhiyate cha,

yada brahmakshatriyah santyajanti .. 9..\\

naishamukshavardhate jatu gehe

nadhiyate sa praja no yajante .

apadhvastA dasyu bhuta bhavanti

ye brahmanah kshatriyansantyajanti .. 10..\\

— (MBH 12/73/9-10).

That the Kambojas were non-Indo-Aryans foreigners (i.e Iranians) is also reflected from these statements of Manusmriti and Mahabharata.

cf: "The leaders of ancient Indian Society were eager to place the foreigners in the social organisation of the country; e.g Manu regards the Kambojas as degraded Kshatriyas (X-43-44) while Patanjali in his Mahabhasya (Pa II.4.10) regards the Sakas and Yavanas as as anivasita (pure) shudras ". (Ref: Journal of Ancient Asian History, Vol I, Part I & II, 1967-68, p 89, Dr D. C. Sircar).

Valmiki Ramayana: The Kamboja/Vasishta Relationship

Kishkindha Kanda Sarga 43 of Ramayana tells us that Sugariva had sent his detectives under Shatabala in search of Sita in the lands of Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Paradas and further of the Uttarakurus in the extreme north-west (Ramayana 4.43.11-12).

Bala-Kanda Sarga 6 of Ramayana speaks of the famed stallions of Kamboja land and ranks among the best of the horse breeds (Ramayana 1.6.22)

In Adi Kanda of the Ramyana (1/55/2-3), we read that the Kambojas and some other allied tribes of north-west were 'created' at the request of sage Vasishta by the Divine cow Shavala to defend Vasishta sage from the forces of king Vishwamitra (Dr B. C. Law).

Sanskrit:

tasyaa hu.mkaarato jaataaH kAmbojaa ravi sannibhaaH/

uudhasaH tu atha sa.njaataaH pahlavaaH shastra paaNayaH//

yoni deshaat ca yavanaH shakRi deshaat shakaaH tathaa/

roma kuupeSu mlecChaaH ca haariitaaH sa kiraatakaaH//

— (Valmiki Ramayana, I/55/2-3)

English:

Forth sprang Kambojas, as she lowed;

bright as the Sun their faces glowed,

Forth from her udder Barbars poured,

soldiers who brandished spear and sword,

And Yavans with their shafts and darts,

and Shakas from her hinder parts.

— (Valmiki Ramayana: I.55.2-3: Trans Ralph T. H. Griffith)

This mythical 'creation' of the Kambojas may point towards the earliest attempt to convert the Iranian Kambojas and other allied tribes into the brahmanised Kshatryas of the Indo-Aryan version by one rishi from the Vasishta Brahmina line.

It appears that one section of the Iranian Kambojas was proselytized into Hinduism by the rishis of Vashista clan. These Hinduised Kambojas later became ardent champions of Vedic religion and the great scholars of the Vedas. Sage Kamboja Aupanayava was a great vedic teacher of his times and finds a place in the line of distinguished vedic teachers of Vamsa Brahmana (1/18-19) of Samveda.

Sanskrit:

anandjascand.anayana.sambaccsarkarksyat.kambojaccopamanyavat.//18

samba.sarkarkya.kambojascaupamanyavo.madrakaraccsaungayane.//19

— (Vamsa Brahmana, 1/18-19)

Rig Veda (1.102.09) refers a sage named Upamnayu.

tvaaM deveShu prathamaM havaamahe tvam babhuutha pRitanaasu saasahiH /

semaM naH kaarum upamanyum udbhidam indraH kRiNotu prasave ratham puraH // 09

— (Rig Veda 1.102.09)

Scholars have identified this sage Upamanyu as the father of sage Kamboja Auapamnayava of the Vamsa Brahmana.

(Refs: The Rigveda (Tr), III, p 113, Dr. Ludwig; Some Kshatrya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 231, Dr Law; Alt-Indisches Leben, p 102, Dr H. Zimmer; Histoory and Culture of Indain People, The Vedic age, p 259; Purana, Vol VI, No 1, Jan 1964, p213; Problems of ancient India, 2000, pp 6-7,224, K. D. Sethna; Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 202-04, Dr Kamboj etc. etc.)

The Kambojas/Kambujas are also associated and listed at par with the Vasishthas in Paraskar Grihyam Sutram (2/1/23). Both Kambojas and Vasishthas were obligated to wear one choti on right side of the head.

Sanskrit:

dakshinatah Kambojaanaam Vashisthaanaam,

ubhayato Atri Kashyapaanaam mundah Bhriguh,

panchachuda Angris.Bajasneyaanaameka manglarth shikhinoanyai/

— (Chudakarma Samskaara in the Paraskara GrhyaSutram 2.1.21,, Commentary by Pt Harihar)

This shows trhat the Brahmanised scholarly class of the Kambojas, like the Vasishthas had a Dakshinatah Kapardin or Choti. Thus the social and religious customs of the Hinduised Kambojas and the Indo-Aryan Vasishtas were identical but differed from other scholarly clans of ancient India.

The Bahu/Sagara Puranic legend also implies that the Kambojas were in the good books of the Vashista scholarly clan.

This Vashista clan appears to have played a leading role in proselytising the Persian Kambojas into Hinduism, especially those living in Kabol/Swat valley in Afghanistan. It is very likely that the Vashista Brahminas had acted as family priests to Hinduised Kambojas (cf: Dr J. L. Kamboj).

There are several references in ancient Sanskrit and Pali literature informing us of the scholarship of the Hinduised Kambojas. It appears that the Kambojas had attained this status mainly through the efforts of the Vashista clan of Brahminas. There are also indications that the Kaundanya line of Brahminas, an offshoot from Vasishtas, had also had good relationships with the Kambojas, especially with those Kambojas who had settled in western and southern India after Christian era.

The following evidence from Mahabharata amply attests that, besides being fierce warriors, the Kambojas were also noted as the learned (kRitavidyAshcha) people.

Sanskrit:

ye tvete rathino rAjandRishyante kA~nchanadhvajAH./

ete durvAraNA nAma kAmbojA yadi te shrutAH.//43

shUrAshcha kRitavidyAshcha dhanurvede cha niShThitAH./

sa.nhatAshcha bhRisha.n hyete anyonyasya hitaiShiNaH.//44

akShauhiNyashcha sa.nrabdhA dhArtarAShTrasya bhArata./

— (MBH 7/112/43-44)

English:

Those other car-warriors with golden standards, O king, whom you see, and who, like the wild elephants are difficult of being resisted, they are called the Kambojas. They are brave, a learned people and are firmly devoted to the science of weapons. Desiring one another's welfare, they are all highly united and mutually cooperative. They constitute a full Akshauhini of wrathful warriors.

cf: "They (Kambojas) were not only famous for their furs and skins embroidered with threads of gold, their woolen blankets, their wonderful horses and their beautiful women, but by the epic period, they became especially renowned as Vedic teachers and their homeland as a seat of Brahmanical learning" (Hindu World, Vol I, p 520, Benjamin Walker; cf: History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age, p 159, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar; cf: Political History of Acient India, 1996, p 134, Dr R. C. Raychaudhary; cf: Buddhism in India and Around, p 6, Dr Banerjee; Huns, Yavanas and Kambojas, Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol XXVI-2, 1950, p 123, Dr S. B. Chaudhury; cf: Problems of ancient India, 2003, pp 6-7, 224, K. D. Sethna etc etc).

Ashvaka Kambojas and Alexander the Great

As the Kambojas were famous for their horses and as a cavalry-men, the Ashvakas i.e. horsemen was also the term populary applied to them.... These Ashvakas (Arrian, Bk. V, Chap. I; Arrian Indika), inhabited Eastern Afghanistan and were included in the general term Kambojas (Hindu Polity, Part I & II, 1978, pp 121, 140; Dr K. P. Jayswal)

French scholras like Dr E. Lamotte have also identified these Ashvakas with the Kambojas of ancient Sanskrit literature (Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte; also see: History of Panjab, Vol I, Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Joshi; Ancient Kamboja, People and country, 1981, pp 271-72, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119, 192, K. S. Dardi)

J. W. McCrindle considers ancient Kamboja as equivalent to Afghanistan, the Kaofu (Kambu) of Hiuen Tsiang and further writes the name Afghan as evidently derived from the Ashavakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian (Alexandra's Invasion of India, p 38; Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180, J. McCrindle)

The Kamboja clans living in the hilly regions in the valleys of Kunar, Swat and Panjkora (cf: Dr S. M. Ali) have been called Aspasios and Assakenois ( from Iranian Aspa = Sanskrit Ashva).

Panini calls them respectively as Ashvakayana (Ashtadshyayi IV-1, 99) and Ashvayana (Ashtadshyayi IV-1,110).

(History and Culture of Indian People, the Age of Imperial Unity, Vol II, p 45, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr R. C. Majumdar).

cf: 'With the expression Assanam Ayatanam ...land of horses used by Pali Texts in reference to the Kambojas, may be compared the names Aspasios and Assakenois given by classical writers to the sturdy people living in the Alishang and Swat valleys in the days of Alexander ' (Ref: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133, p 216 ffn 2, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; cf: MBH VI.90.3).

'The Ashsvakas in their coins are referred to as Vatashavaka. The 'Vata' is probably a prikritic version of Sanskrit 'Varta' which reminds us of the Varta.shastropajivin description of theirs (i.e. the Kambojas) in the Arathshastra.' [See: Hindu Polity, Part I & II, p 51, 121, Dr Jayswal; Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society , XX, p 289 on their coins; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 11, Dr J. L. Kamboj; for vata.ashavaka = varta-ashvaka, also see: Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1900, pp 98-106; History and Culture of Indian People, the Age of Imperial Unity, Vol II, p 45, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr R. C. Majumdar].

Dr Buddha Parkash writes: 'The Mecedonian conqueror made short shrifts of the arrangments of Darius and over-running Achaemenian empire, dashed into Afghanistan and encountered stiff residstence of the Kamboja tribes called Aspasios and Assakenois known in the Indian texts as Ashvayana and Ashvakayana (Panjab Past and Present, pp 9-10; also ref: History of Porus, pp 12, 38, Dr Buddha Parkash).

These Ashvayana and Ashvakayana Kamboja clans had fought the invader to a man. When worst came to worst, even the Ashvakayana Kamboj women had taken up arms and joined their fighting husbands, thus preferring 'a glorious death to a life of dishonor' (Diodorus in McCrindle, p 270).

The Ashvaka Kambojas had fielded 30,000 strong cavalry, 30 elephants and 20,000 infantry against Alexandra.. [Ancient Kamboja, People & the Country, p 248, Dr Kamboj]

Not only an irresitible warriors, the Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas were also a good agriculturists and cattle breeders (cf: Varta-shastr.opajivin appelation used for them by Kautiliya).

'It apears that the Asvayanas (=Kambojas) were good cattle breeders and agricuturists. This is clear from big number of the bullocks, 230,000 according to Arrian, of a size and shape superior to what the Macedonians had not known, which Alexander captured from them and decided to send them to Macedonia for agriculture '(History of Panjab, Vol I, p 226, Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh, op cit Dr Kamboj, p 247).

AFGHAN AND ASHVAKAN RELATIONSHIP:

Scholars like Christian Lassen, Saan Martin, L. Bishop, Dr Crooks and several others think that the word Afghan has obviously originated from the Sanskrit word Ashvakan......the Assakenois of the classical writings.

[More Refs: J. W. McCrindle, Alexander's Invasion of India, p 38; McCrindle in Magasthenes and Arrian, p 180; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, A Critical Study, 1972, p 179 Dr M. R. Singh; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, Vol-I, 1966, p 243, William Smith, Phillip Smith; Geographical Dictionary of ancient and Mediaval India, Dr Nundo Lal Dey; Itihaas Parvesh, 1948, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 118, Dr Kamboj etc].

The Kambojas and the Maurya Kings

The Mudrarakshas play of Visakhadutta (2) as well as the Jain works Parisishtaparvan refers to Chandragupta's alliance with Himalayan king Parvatka. The Himalyan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite army made up of the Yavanas, Kambojas, Sakas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas as stated in the Mudra-rakashas (History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 57, Dr Pusalkar and Dr Majumdar).

Sanskrit:

asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parsika-Bahlika parbhutibhih

Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara

balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama

— (Mudrarakshasa 2)

With the help of these frontier martial tribes from north-west, Chandragupta was able to defeat the Greek successors of Alexandra as well as the Nanda/Nandin rulers of Magadha and succeeded in founding the Maurya empire in northern India.

Kambojas find a prominent mention as a unit in Rock Edict XIII of Ashoka (Dr H. C. Raychaudhury). The Rock Edict tells us that the Kambojas had enjoyed autonomy under Mauryas. The republics mentioned in Rock Edict V are Yonas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Nabhakas and the Nabhapamkitas. They are designated as 'araja vishaya' in Rock Edict XIII which shows that they were kingless i.e Repulican units. In other words, the Kambojas formed self- governing political unit under the Maurya Emperors.

King Ashoka had sent censors or missionaries to the Kambojas to convert them to Buddhism and has recorded this fact in his fifth Rock Edict.

The Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa tell us that Majjhima thera went to Kashmir, Gandhar (Kamboj) and other countries of the north-west to preach the Law of Piety.

During Ashoka's times, Maharakkhita thera was sent to Yona country to spread the message among the Yonas and Kambojas (Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 215, Dr Kamboj).

It is stated in the Sasanavamsa that in two hunderd and thirty fifth year of the Parinibhana of the Buddha, Maharakkhita thera, was sent to Yonaka country and he established the Buddha's Sasana in the Kamboja and other lands. (Sasanavamsa (P.T.S.), p 49; Some Kshatrya Tribes of Ancient India, p 249, Dr B. C. Law; op cit, 215, Dr Kamboj).

Thus the Zoroastrian and Brahmanised Hindu Kambojas appear to have embraced Buddhism in large numbers due to the efforts of king Ashoka and his censors.

The Kambojas - The Horselords and the Master Horsemen

The horses of the Kambojas were famous throughout all periods of ancient history. The horses raised and trained in Kamboja were also known as Kamboja (see entries under Kamboja and KAmboja in online Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary).

Sanskrit/Pali literature is effusively overflowing with excellent references to the famed Kamboja horses.

In Buddhist texts like Manorathpurani , Kunala Jataka and Samangavilasini etc, the Kamboja land is spoken of as the birth place of horses:

Kambojo assánam áyatanam.... (Samangalavilasini, I, p 124).

Aruppa-Niddesa of Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa states the Kamboja as the base of horses (10/28)!

Champeya Jataka (verse 23), Mahavastu (II, 185), Kunala Jataka (verse 28) etc make very laudatory references to the Kamboja horses. Champeya Jataka also mentions well-trained mules from Kamboja. Kunala-Jataka details the procedures followed by the Kambojas to catch wild horses for training them as war horses (Jataka Vol V, p 446).

Jaina Uttaradhyana-Sutra (XI/16) tells us that a trained Kamboja horse exceeded all other horses in speed and no noise could ever frighten it:

Prakrit:

jaha se kamboyanam aiiyne kanthai siya/

assay javeyan pavre ayam havayi bahuassuye//

— (Uttaradhyana Sutra XI/16).

The Epics, Puranas and numerous other Sanskrit literature all agree that the horses of the Kamboja, Bahlika and Sindhu regions were the finest breed.

The Valmiki Ramayana (I.6.22) rates the horses from the Kamboja, Bahlika, Vanayu lands as of best quality but puts the Kamboja horses at the head of this list. Further, it equals them to Ucchaisrava, the steed of god Indra, the Lord of Heavens:

Sanskrit:

Kambojavishhaye jatair Bahlikaishcha hayottamaih./

vanayujairnadijaihshcha purna harihayottamaih.// 22

— (Ramayan I.6.22)

Prince of Ayudhiya, Rama Chandra was the proud possessor of magnificent, powerful and sleek stallions of the Kamboja breed (Prince of Ayodhya , 2004, pp 138, 306, 444, A. K. Banker).

Sauptikaparva of Mahabharata (10/118/13) also ranks the horses from Kamboja as the finest breed:

Sanskrit

Transliteration:

syandanes.u ca Kamboja.yukta.parama-vajinah. //

— (MBH 10/18/13)

Bhishamaparva of Mahabharata (6/90/3-4) refers to the quality horses from various lands but puts the steeds from the Kamboja at the head of the list and marks them as Mukhyas (leaders) among the listed best breed of horses.

Sanskrit:

tatah Kamboja.mukhyanam nadijana.n cha vajinam .

Arattanam Mahijana.n Sindhujana.n cha sarvashah .. 3..\\

Vanayujana.n shubhrana.n tatha parvatavasinam .

ye chapare tittiraja javana vatara.nhasah .. 4..\\

— (MBH 6/90/3-4)

Besides the horses from Kamboja proper, Mahabharata makes very appreciative references to the excellent (shreshtha) horses from Parama-Kamboja also.

Sanskrit:

yuktaih Parama.Kamboj.airjavanairhemamalibhih .

bhishayanto dvishatsainya.n yama vaishravanopamah ..42

prabhadrakastu kambojah shatsahasranyudayudhah .

nanavarnairhayashreshthairhemachitrarathadhvajah .43

— (MBH 6/23/42-43, Gorakhpore rec.; see also: 8/38/13-14, MBH 10/13/1-2)

In the great battle fought on the field of Kurukshetra, the fast and powerful horses of Kamboja were of greatest service (Dr B. C. Law, Dr Kamboj).

The best steeds come from Kamboja, Aratta, Mahi, Sindhu and Vanayu countries, but those from the Kamboja head the list (Persica-9, p 114, Dr Michael Witzel; MBH 6/90/3).

The horses of Kamboja, very beautiful to look at (darshaniya), decked with feathers of suka bird and of the colour of parrots, they ran with sleek speeds with their tails, eyes and ears remaining motionless (MBH 8/23/7, 8/36/36).

Kautiliya Arthashastra also ranks the Kamboja horses as the leaders in the list of the best horses:

Sanskrit:

prayogyaanaam uttamaah Kaamboja.Saindhava.Aaratta.Vanaayujaah,

madhyamaa baahliika.paapeyaka.sauviiraka.taitalaaH,

zesaah pratyavaraah // 29

— (Kautiliya Arthashastra. 2/30/29)

English:

The (horse) breed of Kámbhoja, Sindhu, Aratta, and Vanáyu countries are the best; those of Báhlíka, Pápeya, Sauvira, and Taitala, are of middle quality; and the rest ordinary (avaráh).

— (Trans: Kautiliya Arthashastra, Dr R. Shamashastri, book, II, Ch 30)

In his play Karnabhara, ancient Sanskrit poet Bhaasa (3rd c AD) makes god Indra speak very high of the Kamboja horses. God Indra compares the celebrated horses from respected Kamboja as matching that of god Surya. They bring fortunes, are worthy of all compliments, are a proud possession of all kings, are full of all virtues, and are capable of running with the speed of wind and displaying best behavior in the war:

Sanskrit:

raviturgasmanam sadhanam rajyalakshamyah sakalnripatimanyam manyakamboja jatam/

sugunhmanilvegam yudhdrishatapadanam sapadi bahusahasar vajinam dadami. //19//

— (Karnabhara 19)

Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa (verse 4/69-70) makes references to the Kamboja horses and menttions them as of excellent quality.

Sanskrit:

Kambojah samare sodhum tasya viryamaniishvarah

gajalan.prikilishatairakshotaih sardhmaantah

teshaam sadashva.bhuyishthaas.tunga.draviynah.rashyah.

— (Raghu 4/69-70)

Laksanaprakasa quotes numerously from several important old authorities some of which are probably lost to us. Among them are the Asvayurveda and Asvasastra..... the former attributed to Jayadeva and the latter to Nakula.

Asvashastra by Nakula divides horses of this earth into four classes. uttama, madhyama, kanyama and neechatineecha. In the uttama or best catagory, Nakula lists horses from Tajik, Khurasan and Tushara countries. Further in this list of best class, the horses from Tajik (i.e. Kamboj) are put at the head of the list.

Sanskrit:

chaturdha vajino bhumau jayante deshsanshryat/

Tajikah Khurasanashcha Tushanashchottama//

gojikanashcha keikeyanah potaharashcha madhyamah/

gahurah sahuranashcha sindhuwarah kaniyasah/

anayadeshodhbhava ye cha neechneechasatthaapre//

— (Virmitryodhye Laksanaprakasa, p 415)

According to Manasollasa of the Calukyan King Somes'vara III of the early twelfth century, there are sixty five types of horses out of which thirty nine varieties are well known while twenty six types are rather unknown. In the thirty nine well-known types described by him, the Kamboja horses occupy the first place (Somes'ara's Manasollasa 4.4.715-30)

Vishnu Vardhana, the real founder of Hoysala greatness, who later on became ruler of Mysore had the Kamboja horses and he had made the earth tremble under the tramp of his powerful Kamboja horses (Ancient India, p 236, Dr S. K. Aiyangar).

Vishnu Purana refers to thousands of horses from Kamboja and other lands in the stable of king Naraka of Pragjyotisha but the Kamboja horses are stated to be of finest quality (Vishnu Purana, p 460, H. H. Wilson).

The verse 12 of the third Asama-patra (1185 AD) of king Valabha Deva proudly claims him as the possessor/rider of the Kamboja horses and elephants.

Sanskrit:

Kambojavajivrajavahnendryantabhavad valabha deva aye/

— (Kielhorn, F. (ed) Epigraphia Indica, Vol V, 1898-99, pp 184, 187)

The Abhidhana Ratanamala mentions examples of excellent horses from Kamboja, Persia, Vanayu, Bahlika, Sindhu and the lands bordering on Sindhu (Indian Inscriptions, No 511, 284).

Upamiti Bhava Prapanch Katha singles out horses from Kamboja, Bahlika (Balkh) and Turuksha as the best class (Upamiti 474).

Brahmanda Purana (II, 2.16.16), Mahabharata (II.49.20, II.51.4; II.53.5, VII.3.2-3, VII.23.7, VII.36.36; VII.36.39, VII.121.27, VII.125.25, VIII.22.42, VIII.7.11, IX.38.13, X.13.22 etc), Vamsa-Bhaskara, Madhyapithika, Mahayana Buddhist Text Mahavastu, Jataka No 504, Kalidasa's, Mandakranta, Kalhana's Rajatrangini (4.163-65), Harashachrita of Bana Bhatta (verses 7/88-90); see also p 62, Trans E. B. Cowel, F. W. Thomsan, p 50), and numerous other ancient texts as well as many inscriptions like Nalanda gift records of king Deva Pala of Bengal etc make very laudatory references to the Kamboja horses.

All these references, undoubtedly prove one important fact: the Kamboja trained stallions were magnificant, powerful and fastest runners. No doubt, they were very much sought after by kings and warriors in ancient times, and had also done great job for the Kamboja warrrors themselves.

And not for nothing, the great epic Mahabharata states the Kambojas as the horselords and the masters of horsemanship i.e expert cavalrymen (Ashva-yudha-kushalah: MBH 12/105/5).

Kamboja, according to ancient lexicons has also one meaning of elephant (see entries under Kamboja and KAmboja in online Monier Willimas Sanskrit-English Dictionary), which shows that, besides horses, the anncient Kambojas also raised elephants.

The Ashvaka Kambojas had fielded 30,000 cavalry, 30 elephants and 20,000 infantry against Alexander (Ancient Kamboja, People & the Country, p 248, Dr Kamboj).

Chieftain Afrikes, the real brother of chieftain Assakenos [=Ashvaka Kamboja chief....see Political History of Ancient India, p 216-217, Dr Raychaudhury, Dr P. N. Banerjee] is said to have a a fleet of fifteen elephants which he used against Alexandra. The name Afrikes obviously points towards Apryti (Afridis) [Ref: History of Panjab, Vol I, p 232, Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh; Ancient Kamboja, People & the Country, p 287, Dr Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, K. S. Dardi, p 128 ]

Mahabharata refers to wonderful army of war elephants fielded by Sudakshina at Kurukshetra.

Sanskrit:

yasya rajangajanikam bahusahasramadbhutam .

sudakshinah sa sangrame nihatah savyasachina .//20

— (MBH 8/5/20)

English:

Sudakshina, O king, who had wonderful army of thousands of elephants (i.e numerous elephants) hath been slain in battle by Arjuna.

There are also references to Kamboja kings presenting thousands of elephants, besides cows, camels and horses etc as gifts to king Yudhistra at the time of Rajasuya Yajna.

Sanskrit:

Kambojah prahinottasmai parardhyanapi kambalan .. 19..\\

gajayoshid gavashvasya shatasho.atha sahasrashah .

— (MBH 2/49/19).

And finally as said earlier, Asama-patra of king Valabha Deva does also proudly refer to the elephants from Kamboja in his stable (Kielhorn, F. (ed) Epigraphia Indica, Vol V, 1898-99, pp 184, 187).

Thus besides the horses and well trained ponies, the ancient Kamboja land was also noted for its elephants.

Republicanism Among Ancient Kambojas

There are references in ancient literature to republican terms like gana or a sangha, and other similar though less important bodies which were labeled as sreni, puga, or vrata. The gana and sangha, the most important of these terms, originally meant multitude. In later times, they applied to republican system of polity. Besides political sanghas, there are also references to religious and economic sanghas or guilds in ancient literature.

There are many references on Kambojas in ancient literature showing them as following a sangha/republican system of governance.

MAHABHARATA ON GANAS AND SHRENIS OF KAMBOJAS

Mahabharata refers to numerous Ganas (Sanghas) of the Kambojas fighting on the Kauravas's side.

Sanskrit:

narayanashcha gopalah Kambojana.n cha ye ganah. //39.

Karnena vijitah purva.n sangrame shura sammatah. /

— (MBH 7/91/39-40)

There is also a reference to Shrenis in the great Epic. The word Shreni possessed political significance like Gana/Sangha as shown by the expression Kshatriya-Shrenis i.e Corporations of Warriors found in Arthashastra for a class of Varta-Shastr.opajivins (of the Kamboja, Surashtra...11/1/04). Like the Kamboja Ganas, Mahabharata knows of Shrenis fighting on the side of Duryodhana, which obviously alludes to the Shrenis (Corporations) of the Kambojas among others:

Sanskrit:

shrenayo bahusahasrah samshaptaka ganash cha ye//

— (MBH VIII/5/40)

These must be the Corporations of fighting Kshatriyas like the ones referenced in Kautaliya Arthashastra (Ref: Indian as Known to Panini, 1953, p 438, Dr Aggarwala).

Characteristics of Ganas in Mahabharata:

The Santi Parva section of the Mahabharata gives a detailed treatise on the Ganas or republics and lists the essentials for ganas to succeed politically and militarily. Time and agian, the stress is on unity, confederacy, equality, descipline, mutual cooperation, mutual subordination, mutual-respect and high sense of justice which are stated to be vital ingredients of success for the ganas or sanghas. The greed and jealousy are the main provoking causes leading to waste, decay and mutual destruction of ganas.

[Mahabharata verses (12.107.10-32)]

One must notice the following extracts from Shantiparva of Mahabharata which heavily stress on UNITY:

Sanskrit:

tatra danena bhidyante ganah sanghatavrittayah. //12

tasmatsa~nghatayogeshu prayateranganah sada. //14

artha hyevadhigamyante sa~nghatabalapaurushat. // 15

tasmAtsa~nghatamevahurganana.n sharanam mahat .//32.

— (MBH 12/107/12, 14, 15, 32).

The success of the ganas lies in their confederacy only (MBH 12/107/32) since confederated ganas are considered virtually invincible by the enemy.

The successful ganas have been noted as very wealthy, heroic, well-versed in the shastras and accomplished in the art of weaponry e.g:

Sanskrit

dravyavantashcha shurashcha shastragyah shastraparagah./.

— (MBH 12/107/21)

When viewed in light of above characteristics of successful ganas or republics of Mahabharata, we find that all these saliant characteristics said of successful ganas, are beautifully reflected in the Kambojan republics also.

Sanskrit

ye tvete rathino rajandrishyante ka~nchanadhvajah./

ete durvarana nama Kamboja yadi te shrutah.//43

shurashcha kritavidyashcha dhanurvede cha nishthitah./

sa.nhatashcha bhrisha.n hyete anyonyasya hitaishinah.//44

akshauhinyashcha sa.nrabdha dhartarashtrasya bharata./

— (MBH 7/112/43-44)

English:

Those other car-warriors with golden standards, O king, whom you see, and who, like the wild elephants are difficult of being resisted, they are called the Kambojas. They are brave, a learned people and are firmly devoted to the science of weapons. Desiring one another's welfare, they are all highly united and mutually cooperative. They constitute a full Akshauhini of wrathful warriors.

Thus the above chacteristics of the fighting Ganas of the Kambojas plentifully demonstrate that the Kambojas of Mahabharata were a well known republican people.

Besides Kambojan Ganas, other Ganas referred to in Mahabharata are those of Daserkas and the league of Kukuras-Andhakas-Vrishinis.

ARTHASHASTRA ON SANGHAS AND SHRENIS OF KAMBOJAS

Book XI of Kautalya's Arthashastra treats of Sanghas or republics and attests the Sanghas of the Kambojas, Surashtras, Lichchavis, Vrijis, Kurus, Madras, Panchalas etc as important Sanghas. It also attests Kshatriya-shrenis (corporations/guilds of warriors) of the Kambojas, Surashtras etc and states them as living by agriculture, trade and warfare.

Sanskrit:

Kaamboja.surastra.ksatriya.shreny.adayo varta.shastra.upajivinah/

Licchivika.Vrjika.Mallaka.Madraka.Kukura.Kuru.Panchala.adayo raja.shabda.upajivinah//

— (Arthashasra 11/1/04-05)

English:

The Corporations of warriors (kshattriya.srení of) Kámbhoja, and Suráshtra, and other countries live by agriculture, trade and wielding weapons.

The Corporations of Lichchhivika,Vrijika, Mallaka, Mudraka, Kukura, Kuru, Pánchála and others live by the title of a Rája.

— (Kautiliya's Arthashastra, 1956, Dr R. Shamashastriy, p 407, book XI, Chap 1)

Thus Kautiliya's Arthashastra attests the Shrenis or 'Kshatriya-sreni' i.e. 'Corporations of warriors' which republican term he specifically applies to the Kamboja and Surashtra Sanghas.

Shastr.opajivin means living by 'weilding weapons or by warfare'.

Varta.opajivin means living by 'agriculture, trade and industry'.

Thus the composite expression Varta.shastr.opajivini used by Kautiliya for the Kambojas and Surashtras etc signifies that, besides living by warfare i.e as Ayudhajivis (Shastr.opajivis), the Kambojas and Surashtras etc were also living by agriculture, trade and industry (varta.opajivis).

The 'Raja.shabd.opajivini' Sanghas of the Arthashastra bore the title or appellation of raja or king.

Since Kautiliya contrasts the Varta.shastr.opajivini Sanghas with the Raja.shabd.opajivini Sanghas, this means the former had no provision for this title and did not allow it.

In other words the 'Raja.shabd.opajivin' Sanghas observed a king-consul constitution and conversely, the 'Vata-shastr.opajivins' Sanghas did not have a king consul...i.e they were kingless or truly democratic nations.

Kautiliya further informs us that the 'shastr-opajivin' shrenis or corporations (of the Kambojas and Surashtras etc) were the most heroic (shreni.pravira.purusanam...Arathshastra: 7/14/27) and best fit for military recruitment.

Sanskrit:

tesam alabhe bandhu.mitra.kulebhyah samaarjanam // 26

utsaaha.hiinah shreni.praviira.purusanam

cora.gana.atavika.mleccha.jatinam para.apakarinam

gudha.purusanam ca yathaa.labbham upacayam kurvita // 27

para.mishra.apratikaaram abaliyasam vaa paresu prayujita //28

— (Arthashastra 7/14/26-28)

Translation:

In the absence of such sources of his own, he (king) should acquire them from some one among his relatives and friends. If he is destitute of an army, he should, as far as possible, attract to himself the brave men of corporations (i.e shrenis), of thieves, of wild tribes, of Mlechchhas, and of spies who are capable of inflicting injuries upon enemies. He should also adopt the policy of a weak king towards powerful king in view of averting danger from enemies or friends.

Also in verses 11/1/04, Kautiliya, speifically attests the Kshatriya Shrenis of the Kambojas and Surashtras etc in the Varta-shastr-opajivin class of Sanghas of his Arthashastra.....thus showing that the Kshatriya-Shrenis of Kamboja, Surashtra and some other countries were most brave and best source for military recruitment.

(Ref: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 263, 290, Dr J. L. Kamboj; History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 57, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr R. C. Majumdar; cf: Comprehensive History of ancient India, Vol II, p 3, Dr N. K. Shastri).

Martial republics named in the Kautiliya Arthashastra are headed by the Kambojas (Dr K. P. Jayswal, op cit, p 52).

VRATAS OF KAMBOJAS

Dr Aggarwala equates the Vrata with Vratya (cf: Sayana explaining vrata of Tandya XVII.1.5; as vratya.samudaya).

Thus the Vratas were same as the Vratyas. (India as Known to Panini, 1953, p 442, Dr Aggarwal).

Vratya of Atharvaveda (2.9.1) is interpreted as equivalent to troops.

Vratyas or Vratas are said to be democratic bands of warriors of north-west living by warfare, depredation and violence, and existing in the early stage of Sangha Government (op cit, p 441, Dr Aggarwal).

The military leaders of Vratayas, like those of Pugas, were called Gramanis (op cit, p 443, Dr Aggarwal).

According to Dr Weber, Vratyas were non-brahmanical western tribes comprised of the yaudhas or warriors and not following the Aryan way of life, ( Weber, Indische Studien, 1.25.15, 121-40; H.I.L, p 78, Weber; Vedic Index, II, 344; Indian as Known to Panini, p 441)

Sutra texts refer to Vratya as Yaudha (warriors) or arhanta (saints) comparable to the Ksatriyas and Brahmanas (cf. Vedic Index, II, p. 343).

Panini refers to Vratas in two fold sense...(1) one applied to the elementary stage of Sanghas (2) the other applied to warriors living by depredation and violence (Vratena jivati, V.2.21), from which they were known as Vratinas or Vratas. This was general name given to them by Latyayana also.

The Kasika defines Vratas as Sanghas living by violence (utsedha jivinah sangha varatah V.3.113)

Vratyas of Atharvaveda were the Aryan tribes outside the Vedic pale...outside the Aryavarta. They had no brahmanical culture. They were warriors and keepers of flocks. They roamed about in hordes and fought the Vedic Aryans. They were admitted to all the privileges of the Vedic society if they so chose....They could study the Vedas, perform sacred brahmanical rites, duties and yajnas/sacrifices...and entertain the brahmanas. (Journal Asiatic Society of Bihar, Annual Address, Vol XVII, 1921, No 2, M.M. H Shastri; Some Kashatrya Tribes, 1924, p 22-23, Dr B. C. Law).

Roth opines that Vrata may connotes a guild (cf. St. Petersburg Dictionary; Pan~cavims'a Brahman.a 6.9.25; 17.15.12; VS 16.25; TS 1.8.10.2).

Patanjali notes that Vratyas were part of a republican constitution. (Maha_bha_s.ya 5.2.21)

According to Dr Raychaudhury, the Vratyas were those who did not observe ceremonies enjoined in Brahmanic code, neglected the Brahmanic rites and showed a predilection for heretical doctrines like Buddhism and Jainism (Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 111).

Manu calls the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas and some other tribes as Vratyas or degenerate Kshatryas since they did not fullfil sacred duties, perform sacred brahmanical rites & sacrificial ceremonies and further did not entertain the Brahminas (Manusmriti X.43-44). They did not go for Savitiri (intiation) sacrament and therefore, were Vratyas by Manu's definition (Manusmriti II.39, X.20, X.43-44; Origin and Growth of Caste in India, Vol I, 1968, p 121-122, Dr N. K. Dutt).

In Ancient India, the republicanism was a non-brahmanical concept as the Brahmanical role was completely eliminated in republican constitutions. The Kambojas being well known republican peoples were considered incompatible with Brahmanical culture and thoughts. This was also the reason for the Kambojas being listed as degenerate Kshatriyas or Vratyas in Ancient Sanskrit literature (cf: History of India, Vol I, p 51, Dr Romila Thapar).

According to numerous Puranic literature like Vayu Purana (II, 26.127-40), Harivamsa (XIII.760-64) , Brahmapurana (VIII.33-48) etc, the tribes of Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc were originally Kshatriyas, it was Ikshvaku king Sagara who had divested them of their Kshatriyahood and turned them into Vratyas by forbidding them from performing Brahmanical rites like Svadhyaya and Vashatakara

Sanskrit:

nih.svadhyaya.vashatkarah kritastena mahatmana.//49

— (Brahmapurana 8/49)

Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas etc are known have been frequently fighting with ancient Vedic Aryans (Bahu/Sagara war, Vasishtha-Vishwamitra war, Kalika-Kali war, Mahabharata war, Vikarmaditya-Mlechcha war etc) and were also living outside Aryavarta. Hence by Atharvavedic defintion also, they were Vratas or Varatyas.

These so-called "five hordes" (pañcagana) i.e Sakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Yavansas and Paradas of the Puranic literature apparently were the Ayudhajivin hordes organised into military bodies such as Ganas, Pugas, Vratas, Shrenis etc and were apparently living by warfare. These hordes did not constitute the whole of their respective nations but were some military corporations of fighters coming from these nations and had offered their services as Ayudhajivins to those who needed them.

Panini refers to Ayudhajivin Sanghas of Vahika country (V.3.114) i.e region stretching from Sutlej upto Indus as well as those of the Parvarta country (IV.3.91) i.e the mountainous region stretching from Kashmir to Hindukush (Rohitgiri). According to Dr Aggarwala, the Parvartiya Ayudhajivin Sanghas should be sought for in the region of Hindukush (Rohitgiriyas) located on both sides of it (Indian as Known to Panini, 1953, p 437)...which was apparently a Kamboja region. The name still survives in the Kohistan...a stronghold of Ancient Kambojas.

Besides the Ganas, Sanghas and Shrenis which are well attested for the Kambojas in ancient literature, there must also have existed some elementary political institutions like Pugas and Vratas of Kamnbojas in the interior and comparatively backward parts of Hindukush which was less exposed to the outside civilized world.

KAMBOJA AS ARAJAVISHAYA (KINGLESS=REPUBLICAN) NATION IN MAURYA TIMES:

The democratic constitution of the Kambojas is furthher attested from the Rock Edicts V and XIII of king Ashoka. The Kambojas find a prominent mention as a political unit in Rock Edict XIII of Ashoka (Dr H. C. Raychaudhury). This Rock Edict tells us that the Kambojas had enjoyed autonomy under Mauryas.

The republics mentioned in Rock Edict V are Yonas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Nabhakas and the Nabhapamkitas. They are designated as 'arajavisaya' in Rock Edict XIII (hidh.arajavisyavasi Yone-Kambojesu eti...i.e here in the kingless tract among the Yonas and the Kambojas...). The term 'araja-vishaya' here stands for kingless or non-monarchical nations (Jayswal). This shows that the Kambojas were repulican people within the empire. In other words, the Kambojas formed self-governing community or nation under the Maurya emperors.

PUGAS, GOSHATAS OF THE KAMBOJAS IN SRI LANKA.

The democatic character of the Kambojas is further attested from another ancient source of 3rd c BC.

Pugas and Goshatas of Kambojas are referred to in ancient cave inscriptions of Anuradhapura/Sri Lanka which attest 'gote' (corporation) and 'maha-pughiyana' (Sanskrit: maha-pugiyanam) i.e grand sangha of the Kambojas in Sri Lankan cave inscriptins of 3rd c BC.

Himanshu Prabha Ray:

Other terms used for guilds are Puka or Púga and Goti (Sanskrit Gosthi), the former often being used in association with either a village (Paranavitana 1970, nos. 135, 138; Dias 1991: no. 5) or community, such as that of the Kambojas [Paranavitana 1970, no. 553; The Merchants Lineage And the Guild, The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia (Cambridge World Archaeology), 2003, p 194, Himanshu Prabha Ray; cf: Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology on the Indian Ocean, 2002, p 108/09 David Parkin, and Ruth Barnes].

Inscrptional evidence:

Sinhalese Prikrit:

Kabojhiya-mahapugiyana Manapadaiane agataanagat-catu-disa-agaia.

— (Inscription no . 553, Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970)

English:

The cave Manapadassana of the members of the Great Corporations of Kambojiyas, is dedicated to the Saiügha of the four quarters, present and absent.

Sinhalese Prikrit:

Gota-Kabojhi(ya)na parumaka-Gopalaha bariya upasika-Citaya lepe iagaio.

Q— (Inscription no. 990, Dr. S. Paranavitana, 1970).

English:

The cave of the female lay-devotee Citta, wife of Gopala, the chief of the incorporated Goshata of Kambojiyas, is dedicated to the Saiügha.

(Refs: Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology on the Indian Ocean, 2002, pp 124,108-109, David Parkin and Ruth Barnes; see also op cit pp 205/206, Himanshu Prabha Ray)

Panini mentions Puga along with Sangha and Gana in connection with a quorum showing that the method of delibration prevailing in the Puga was similar to well organised Sanghas. (Indeia as Known to Panini, 1953, p 439 Dt Aggarwal), thus attesting the political character of the Pugas. The Pugas were governed by their council of Elders which was headed by a Gramani (Panini V.3.112)....who was a titular head of the Puga. The Kasika makes Puga a species of Sangha composed of members of different groups without any regular occupation, but probably of economic character intent on earning money (nana-jatiya aniyatavavrittayo arthakama-pradhanah Sanghah Pugah: V.3.112). The economic Pugas (Guilds) of the Kambojas are amply attested in Anuradhapura inscriptions of ancient Sinhala as we have seen above, showing that there must have also been prevalent political Pugas among the Kambojas of Central Asia from where the Sinhalese Kambojas had migrated.

The Pugas and Gotas of Sri Lanka refer to the economic sanghas/guilds of the Kambojas in Sri Lankas.

PANCAGANAS (FIVE SANGHAS/HORDES) IN PURANIC LITERATURE:

The Puranic literature nowhere refers to any kings of Kambojas. There are puranic references to Sakas, Kambojas, Yavans, Pahalvas and Paradas as the invading hordes from the north-west, often penetrating the Indian mainland and wrecking its social, political and economic fabric. Some encounters with these peoples are dramatized in legends like those of King Bahu/Sagara of Ishvaku lineage of Hariscandra, where the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas helped the Haihayas and Talajungas to wrest political control of Ayudhya from the Ishvakus. This group of five tribes is referred to as the "five hordes" (pañcagana) in Harivamsa (See Myths of the Dog-Man, p 119, The Vortex of Cynanthropy, David Gordon White).

At one place, the Epic Mahabharata refers to the Kambojas, Yavanas, Gandharas, Barbaras etc as having increased their military prowess in Tretayuga and consequently started creating anarchy on this earth i.e Indo-Aryan mainland. Their activities were not so anarchic in Kritayuga.

Obviously, this alludes to frequent encroachments of these north-west hordes into Ind-Aryan mainland for purpose of plundring and depredation.

Sanskrit:

uttara pathajanmanah kirtayishyami tanapi. /

yauna KambojaGandharah Kirata Barbaraih saha. //43.

..................................................

naite kritayuge tata charanti prithivimimAm /

treta prabhriti vartante te jana bharatarshabha. // 45

— (MBH 12/207/43, 45)

This Bahu-Sagara story of Puanic literature clearly demonstrates the fact that the Kambojas, Sakas, Pahlvas, Paradas etc were organised into military Sanghas or Corporations of warriors and lived as Ayudhajivis i.e by warfare.

WERE ANCIENT KAMBOJAS MONARCHIC OR REPUBLICAN?

Mahabharta addresses prince Sudakshin Kamboj as a Kamboja-raja (MBH 6/44/63, 6/108/14, 6/110/15 etc).

Sanskrit:

Sudakshina.n tu rajendra Kambojanammaharatham .//

— (MBH 6/44/63)

Kambojarajo balava.nstatah pashchat.Sudakshinah.//

— (MBH 6/108/14)

Sudakshino maharaja Kambojah pratyavarayat .//

— (MBH 6/110/15)

as well as a Kambojaraja-putra (MBH 7/92/61, 7/92/72 etc)

Sanskrit:

Kambojarajasya putrah shurah Sudakshinah. //

— (MBH 7/92/61)

putrah Kambojarajasya parthena vinipatitah //

— (MBH 7/92/72)

Chandra Varman Kamboj has also been addressed as raja of Kambojas (MBH 1/67/32 etc)

Sanskrit:

Chandrastu ditija.shreshtho.loke taaraadhipopamah/

Chandravarmetivikhyatah Kambojanam naradhipah//

— (MBH 1//67/32)

At yet another place, there is a reference to another raja of Kambojas called Kamatha (MBH 2/4/23).

Sanskrit:

Kambojarajah Kamathah kampanashcha mahabalah .//

— (MBH 2/4/23)

There is yet another earlier reference to a Kamboja raja who was awarded prized sword by celebrated king Kuvalashava of Ayudhya (MBH 12/66/77)

These references to 'kings of Kambojas' may imply that the Kambojas followed monarchical system of government at earlier period.

But the terms 'Ganah' and 'Shreni' applied to the Kambojas in Mahbharata may sufficiently reveal that the Kambojas had also followed republic system of government.

Panini (5th c BC) refers to Kamboja as one of the fifteen prominent Kshatriya monarchies of his times ((Ashtadhyayi 4/1/168-177).

Very interstingly, as seen above, (refer to Panini's Ashtadhyayi section on Kambojas), Panini gives a special rule (sutra 4.1.175:.. Kambojal-Luk) to denote the king of Kamboja as well as the descendents of the Kamboja Kshatryas i.e citizens of the Kamboja Janapada (Dr Kamboj; cf Dr Aggarwala, Dr Jayswal).

Panini's exceptional rule for the Kambojas only, raises a doubt as to whether the Kambojas were indeed ruled by kings or else, like the Raja.shabd.opajivin Sanghas of Kautiliya's Arthashastra (11/1/04-05), the term 'raja' was only applied to the army chiefs/generals of the Kshatrya Sanghas/Corporations or Confederations of the Kambojas.

In view of Panini's special rule for the Kambojas, Dr Kamboj has raised a doubt on the prevalence of monarchic system among the Kambojas. He feels that the title 'king' among the Kamboja may have different connotains than usually understood...it may have been mere 'title' and may have been indiscriminately applied by the epic writers to the military chiefs of the Kamboja Sanghas/Shrenis/Confedrations (Ancient kamboja, People and the Country, pp 260, 264).

There seems to be a good deal of truth in above observations of Dr Kamboj.

Dr Jayswal also observes: 'Panini gives a rule for the derivative to denote the king of Kambojas. This would indicate that Panini is referring to a monarchy, but the special rule and exceptional form the derivation raise a doubt as to wether the raja of the Kambojas was a king or a consul. In time of Kautaliyia, their constitution certainly did not admit of even a titular king' (Hindu Polity, p 52).

It is most likely that the Kambojas may have been originally a monarchic nation in Vedic times. But later, as the monarchies gave place to republics in post-vedic times, especially those located in trans-Himalaya/Central Asia, the neighboring Kambojas may also have changed to 'Vairajya' or 'republic' constitution as is indirectly attested by Aitareya Brahamana.

Aitareya Brahmana (8-9th c BC) mentions Vairajya as a national constitution prevalent among the Janapadas of the north i.e those located beyond Himalayas (Dr K. P. Jayswal, Dr S. Misra, Dr Kamboj)

Sanskrit:

tasmad atasyam udichya dishi ye ke ca pren himvantam janapada uttarakurva uttaramadra

iti vairajyaya te.abhishichyante

— (Aitareya Brahamana, VIII/14).

The Vairajya constitution has been interpretted as kingless i.e republic constitution (Aitareya Brahmana, Vol II, p 518n, M. Haug) where whole Janapada took the consecration of rulership and it was a real democratic constitution.

Vairajya certainly denoted to pre-Kautiliya authorities a form of government dependent on popular will as the expression 'prikritichitgrihanapekshi' implies and its defence by authorities on the ground that it is, in truth, enjoyed by everybody (yatha sthith.mnyairbhujyate) shows its democatic character.(cf: Kautailiya Arthashastra on forms of Government, I.H.Q., XIV-2, 1938, p 370, Dr H. K. Deb).

Aitareya Brahmana only quotes Uttaramadra and the Uttarakuru as example of Vairajya constitution obtaining in the trans-Himalaya area. This means that they were not the only Janapadas in the north following the Vairajya or republican constitutions.

We know that the Kambojas were located in eastern parts of Oxus country as neigbors to the Bahlika-Uttaramadras (of Przyluski, Keith, Macdonnel, Aggarwala, Singh etc) who were located in Bahlika country i.e western parts of Oxus country (see: Location of Kamboja).

The Uttarakurus of Aitreya Brahmana were located on north of Pamirs (Dr Aggarwala, op cit p 63).

Kambojas are not specifically referred to in the Aitareya Brahmana, but then Aitareya Brahmana only quotes Uttarakuru/Uttaramadra as an example of Vairajya constitution prevalent among the Northen states and does not give us the complete list of the Vairajya nations (Ref: Hindu Polity, I & II, p 78, Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 266).

It, therfore, goes without saying that the Kambojas who were very neighbors to both the Uattarakurus (north off Pamirs) and the Uttaramadras (western Oxus country) must have also followed some kind of Vairajya or republican constitution, especially a 'king consul' type, where the king was only a titular head of the governing assembly made up of the wisemen and the elders. Their constitution may indeed have been Raja.shabd.opajivin type at this earlier age.... which type has been attested by Kautiliya later for some non-Kamboja Sanghas of 4th c BC.

The Kamboja Mahjanapada of the Buddhist literature (7th-6th c BC), to all probability, was a 'grand confederation' of the Kambojas following a king-consul type republican constitution with raja being a only a title for the military chief of the Kamboja confederations.

At Panini's times (5th c BC), this constitution of the Kambojas must have differed from each of the other fourteen Kshatriya monarchies listed in the Ashtadhyayi (4.1.168-175) so that Panini had to introduce a special rule for the derivative to denote the king of Kambojas who may have been a military head of the 'confederated Sanghas or Corporations' of the Kambojas.

After Panini, the Kamboja constitution had undegone some evolutionary changes. Necessitated by the conditions of times, the character of the Kamboja republics had changed from 'king consul' to a fully democratic i.e 'king-less' constitution. It had also broadened the franchisement to give representation to trade and industrial groups etc. As a result, the Kamboja constitution had changed from raja-shabd.opajivin to varta-shastr.opajivin constitution (Kautaliyia Arathashastra 11/1/4). This change surely represented more viable nations, from political, economic and military standpoint.

The administrative Sanghas of the Kambojas which formerly consisted of militarist groups only now comprised trader's guilds and other economic groups as well. And instead of being headed by a military chief or a king-consul, these Sanghas now had become kingless i.e truly democratic in character.

According to scholars, the military training was mendatory in these 'varta-shastr.opajivin' states, but after the training was over, the individual was free to adopt the profession of his choice. At the time of emergency, any numbers of army depending upon situation could be summoned in a moment's notice. The whole citizenry was its army and thus was immeasurably superior to the hired levies of monarchies or of the king-consul (or Raja-shabd.opajivin) States of Kautiliya. Bravery was a point of ambition and honour amongst the citzens. And when these nations formed offensive or defensive league, they were regarded as invincible. Each State was a nation-in-arms... martial and industrial, in the same breadth. The hand which weilded sword successfully was also accustomed to use scyth with equal facility. According to Buddhist documents and Arthashastra, they were agricultural and industrial. Hence, they were found rich and strong (cf: MBH 7/23/42 Kambojah....yama vaishravan.opamah..i.e. extremely rich Kambojas; also cf: the mounds of tunga.draviynah.rashyah or immense treasure of Kambojas as referred to in Raghuvamsa 4/70; also cf: parchurratano hi ca desha iti i.e the country of Kambojas having abundance of ratanas/gems...Acharya Durga on Yasaka's Nirukuta II/2) [Hindu Polity, p 51-52, 103-107, 163-64, Dr Jayswal; Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 268-69, Dr Kamboj).

It appears that at the time of Kautiliya, each of the Kamboja Sanghas/Corporations maintained its own individual existence but at the time of war or emergency, these Sanghas/Corporations entered into a confederation with other Sanghas which tremendously increased their military strength.

Mahabharata attests that it was almost impossible for an enemy to crush the confedrated ganas or republics

Alliance with the ganas was always courted by outsiders and they (ganas) took special delight in reducing their foes and saw to it their own prosperity. (MBH 12/107/15)

Buddha himself gave his opinion to Chancelleor of Magadha that confederated Vajis (a republican people) could not be conquered by Magadha king.

Kautiliya's Arathashastra emphatically states that the confederated Sanghas are virtually invincible (Kautiliya Arthashastra, 11/1/02).

ON THE INVINCIBILITY OF CONFEDERATED SANGHAS/CORPORATIONS:

Sanskrit:

samgha.laabho danda.mitra.laabhaanaam uttamah //

samghaa hi samhatatvaad adhrsyaah paresaam //

taan anugunaan bhujjiita saama.daanaabhyaam, viguNaan bheda.dandaabhyaam //

Kaamboja.Suraastra.ksatriya.zreny.aadayo vaartta.zastra.upajiivinan //

Licchivika.Vrjika.Mallaka.Madraka.Kukura.Kuru.Paajcaala.aadayo raaja.zabda.upajiivinah //

— (Arthashastra 11/1/01-05)

The acquisition (conquest) of a Samgha is more desirable than an alliance of good will or military aid. Those (Samghas) which are united (in league) should be treated with the policy of subsidy and peace, for they are invincible. Those which are not united should be conquered by army and disunion (Hindu Polity, 1978, p 115, Dr K. P. Jayswal). The corporations of warriors (kshattriya-srení) of Kámbhoja, and Suráshtra and other countries live by agriculture, trade and wielding weapons. The corporations of Lichchhivika,Vrijika, Mallaka, Mudraka, Kukura, Kuru, Pánchála and others live by the title of a Rája.

Migration to India and Beyond

Other references to Kambojas abound in ancient literature, and this may have been just the expansion of an Indo-European tribes with both Persian and Indic affinities from their homeland in the Afganisthan-Turkistan region along the foothills of the Himalayas towards Bengal, along the coast to Gujarat, to Sri Lanka, and possibly further to Cambodia.

In their advance from their original home in Central Asia during 2nd/1st c BC, one stream of the Kambojas, in accompaniment with the Sakas and Pahlavas had proceeded to Sindhu, Sovira and Surashtra; while the other stream moved to Panjab and UP.

There is a distinct prophetic statement in the Mahabharata that the mlechcha kings of Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlika etc will rule unrighteously in Kaliyuga, which is too clear a statement to be ignored (Dr Raychaudhury).

Sanskrit:

viparite tada loke purvarupa.n kshayasya tat.28

bahavo mechchha rajanah prithivyam manujadhipa .

mithyanushasinah papa mrishavadaparayanah. 29.

Andhrah ShakAh Pulindashcha Yavanashcha naradhipah .

Kamboja Aurnikah Shudrastathabhira narottama. 30.

— (MBH 23/187/28-30)

This statement, couched in the form of prophecy in true puranic style, obviously alludes to historical situation (second/first c BC downwards) which followed the collapse of Maurya and Sunga dynasties in North India. The Saka, Yavana, Kamboja, Pahlava, Abhira invading hordes from north-west had entered Panjab, UP, Sindhu, Rajasthan and Gujarat in large numbers, wrested political control of northern India from the Indo-Aryans and had established their respective kingdoms/pricipalities in the sacred land of the Indo-Aryans. This chaotic situation of Arya India is said to have ended with the destruction of these Saka, Kamboja, Yavana, Parsika invading hordes by king Vikramaditya of Ujjaini (60 c BC) and the establishment of Vikram era:

Sanskrit:

ata shrivikramadityo helya nirjitakhilah/

mlechchana kamboja.yavanan neechan hunan sabarbran//

tushara.parsikaanshcha tayakatacharan vishrankhalan/

hatya bhrubhangamatreyanah bhuvo bharamavarayate//

— (Brahata Katha, 10/1/285-86, Kshmendra)

Kambojas in Mathura

'Mathura was under outlandish people like the Yavanas and Kambojas... who had a special mode of fighting' (Manu and Yajnavalkya, Dr K. P. Jayswal).

Sanskrit:

tatha Yavana Kamboja mathuramabhitash cha ye./

ete ashava.uddha kushaladasinatyasi charminah.//5

— (MBH 12/105/5, Kumbhakonam Ed)

cf: Mathura Lion Capitol Inscriptions contain references to the Kambojas (Dr R. K. Mukerjee, Ancient india, 1956, p 220)

"Along with the Sakas, the Kambojas had also entered India and spread into whole of north India, especially in Panjab and Uttar Pardesh. Mahabharata contains references to Yavanas and Kambojas having conquered Mathura (12/105/5). There is also a reference to Kambojas in the Lion Capitol inscriptions of Saka Kshatrapa Rajuvula found in Mathura...." (India and the World, p 154, Dr Buddha Parkash).

The Lion Capitol discovered in 1896 from Saptarsi mound in the south-eastern part of Mathura city housed in the British Museum, London, contains an epigraph in Kharoshati characters which refers, among others, to Yuvaraja Kharaostas 'Kamuio' and Aiyasi 'Kamuiá', the chief queen of Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula. After fresh and thorough critical review of Mathura Lion Capitol inscriptions, Dr S. Konow has arrived at results and conclusions which are different from the earlier scholars.

From thorough and afresh critical examination of Lion Capitol inscriptions, Dr Konow had concluded that Rajuvula's chief queen was Aiyasi 'Kamuiá' who was the daughter of Yuvaraja Kharaostas, himself also a 'Kamuia'.

By rigorous linguistic analysis, Dr Konow has established that name Kamuia/Kamuio of Lion Capitol inscriptions is the Khroshtised version of the Sanskrit Kamboja, Kambojaka, or Kambuja which has been accepted by numerous noted scholars

[cf: Kamboja => Kamboya => kamboiya => Kamoia = > Kamuia. And Kambujiya => Kambuiya =>Kambuia => Kamuia. Also Kambojika => Kamboyika => Kamboika => Kambuia => Kamuia. The soft 'y' replaces hard 'j' in the Lion Capitol Inscriptions. Ashoka's Rock Edicts V and XIII of Peshawer also write soft 'y' instead of hard 'j' since the 'Kamboja' is found written as 'Kamboya' in those inscriptions. Further, Mathura Lion Capitol inscriptions make use of 'u' intead of common 'o' as in name Sudas for Sodas. Also mb becomes m i.e mm in the dialect of Khroshthi dhammapada....cf: S Konow, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum II, Vol II, Part I, p xxxvi and p 36)

The scholars have identified Yuvaraja Kharaostas of Lion Capitol inscriptions with Kshatrapa Kharaostas whose coins have been examined by Rapson and Luders. Kshatrapa Kharaostas was son of Artas as is clear from his coins i.e 'kshatrapasa pra Kharaostasa Artasa putras'. Artas (or Ortas) is stated to be brother of king Moga (or Maues).

Thus, according to Dr Konow and his line of scholars, king Moga, his brother Artas, Yuvaraja Kharaostas (Khroshtha) Kamuio, and queen Aiyasi Kamuia were all from the 'Kamuiá' or Kamboja/Kambojaka or Kambuja clan.

(Ref: Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol II, part I, p xxxvi; p 36; see also: Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research society, Vol XVI, 1930, parts III, IV, p 229, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Ancient India, 1956, p 220-21, Dr R. K. Mukerjee; cf Comprehensive History of India, 1957, Vol II, p 270, Dr K. A. Nilkantha Shastri; ; op cit, Dr Buddha Parkash, p 154; For detailed discussion, see Ancient Kamboja People & Country, 1981 pp 41, 42, 306-309, Dr J. L. Kamboj etc).

However, some scholars insist that king Moga was of Saka extractions, but there is absolutely no concrete evidence to conclusively link him to Saka ethnicity. Scholars link Moga to the Sakas simply based on his Moga, Maues, Muki or Mevake names which are stated to be variants of a Saka name Mauekes (Dr Raychaudhary). This is not a solid reasoning to identify him as of Saka extractions.

As is well known, during centuries preceeding the Christian era, there had occurred enormous social and cultural admixture among the Kambojas and Yavanas; the Sakas and Pahlavas; and the Kambojas, Sakas, and Pahlavas such that their cultures and social customs had become almost identical. It is, therefore, almost impossible to identify one people apart from the others (Dr Kamboj). The extensive social and cultural admixing due to time and space proximity had led to adoption of similar social customs, manners and language among these frontier people from north-west. The culture of Kambojas was modified as a result of their contacts first with the Yavanas and later it went further modification as a result of their contacts with the Sakas and Pahlavas etc (cf: Puranas, Vol V, No 2, July 1963, p 256, Dr Sircar; Ancient Kamboja People and the Country, p 308, Dr J. L. Kamboj). Hence identification based merely on so-called saka-sounding names is no conclusive evidence at all. If one accepts above argument, then how to explain the surname Kamuia used after the names of some family members of king Moga? Is Kamuia (=Kambojaka/Kambuja/Kamboja/Kambojia) as a clan name also attested among the Sakas/Scythians, anywhere?

Matter-of-factly, there is no unanimity on the ethnicity of king Moga and his family.

Scholars like Dr V. A. Smith say that he was a Parthian king (The early History of India, p 242). Others say that he was Saka king. Dr S. Konow and the scholars following him say that he was Kamboja.

Dr Thomas points out that the epigraphs of Mathura Lion Capitol exhibit a mixture of Saka and Persian nomenclature (Epigraphia Indica, IX, pp 138ff; J.R.A.S. 1906, 207f, 215f). This verifies that Aiyasi Kamuia and Kharoshtha Kamuia were from the Persian denominations hence definitely from Kamboja ethnicity. Even the northern Kshatrapas are stated to be of mixed Saka/Persian ethnicities (Dr Thomas).

Ethnic surnames 'Kamuia'/'Kamuio' used with the names of princess Aiyasi and Yuvaraja Kharaostas in Mathura Lion Capitol inscriptions should give enough credibility to the view that king Moga and his family belonged to 'Kamuia' or Kamboja/Kambuja clan. It is reasonable to think that the Kamboja clan of king Moga had become somewhat Scythianised in culture due to its extensive exposure to the next-door vast community of Central Asian tribes which followed Scythian culture.........hence this confusion among the scholars.

There are also some European scholars who state the Kambojas as a clan of the Sakas. If this view is accepted, it immediately blows off any mist and confusion about true ethnicity of king Moga and his family. But originally, the Kambojas were Aryans, and not Scythians, in culture.

Kambojas in West/Southwest India

Dr S. K. Aiyangar places his Kamboja in modern Sindh and Gujarat with Dvaraka as its Capital (Ancient India, p 7, Dr S. K. Aiyangar).

Dr P. N. Banerjee, in his 'Public Administration in Ancient India' too, assigns Kamboja to a region near Sindh with its Capital at Dvarka. (Public Administration in Ancient India, p 56, Dr P. N. Banerjee).

Nagendra Nath Vasu asserts that Kambhey in Surashtra is a corruption of Sanskrit Kamboja (Vanger Jatya Itihass (Bangla) Rajnyakanda, Jogendra Ghosh).

Dr Jogindra Chandra Ghose also connects Kambhey with the Kambojas (Epigraphia Indica, XXIV, pp 45-46).

Brhatsamhita of Varahmihira (6th century AD) locates one Kamboja settlement specifically in the South-west (nairRtyAM dizi) of India as neighbors to Sindhu, Sauvira, Saurashtra and Dravida. e.g.

sanskrit:

nairrtyam dizi dezah Pahlava Kamboja SindhuSauvirah/

hemagiri Sindhu Kalaka Raivataka surASTra Badara Dravidah/

— ( Brhatsamhita 14/17-19).

Rajbilaas , a mediaval era text also locates a Kamboj settlement in the neighborhood of Kachcha, Sorata or Saurashtra and Gurjara countries of SW India. e.g.

sanskrit:

sorata gurjara kachcha-kamboja-gauda rukha:

— (Rajbilaas 1/122).

Very interestingly, Agni Purana locates two Kamboja settlements in Indian mainland.... Kambhoja in south-west India and Kamboja in southern parts of India (Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, p 305, Dr Kamboj)..

Markendya Purana also locates a Kamboja settlement in the south-west India as neighbor to Sindhu, Sauvira and Anarta (Surashtra) countries (Markandya Purana, 55/30-33).

Arathshastra of Brahspati, refers to Kamboja as a great country (Mahavishaya) and locates it adjacent to Dasrana country, south-east of Gujarata (Indian Historical Quarterly , Vol. XXVI-2, 1950, p 127).

Vishnu Dharmottari also includes the Kambojas in the list of Janapadas of south-west India (Verse I.9.6) (Ref: Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 163, 206, Dr M. R. Singh)

The Garuda Purana which was composed comparatively late, also locates a Kamboj principality/settlement in the neighborhood of Ashmaka, Pulinda, Jimuta, Narashtra, Lata and Karnata countries, and also specifically informs us that this section of Kambojas were living in southern division of India (dakshinapathvasinah) e.g.

sanskrit:

pulinda ashmaka jimuta narrashtara nivasinah:

carnata kamboja ghata dakshinapathvasinah:

— (Garuda Purana 1/15/13).

Pt Avadh Bihari Lal Avasthi comments on the above references as follows: 'We find Kambhi, Kamm, Kumbhi etc castes in South India. There is also a famous city Koimb-toor. Possibly, there has also been a Kamboja country in Southern India' (See Garuda Purana, Aik Adhyan p 28).

The above post-Christian Sanskrit references abundantly substantiate the historical fact that some sections of Central Asian Kambojas had also joined the Saka and Pahlava movements from Central Asia in the wake of events of second/first c BC and had accordingly spread and settled into northern and south-western parts of India.

The Kambojas in/around west, south-west India are also attested from inscriptions of king Sahasiva Raya of Sangama Dynasty (1336-1478), kings Harihara & Deva Raya of Narasinga Dynasty (1496-1567), and from the references of king Vishnuvardhana of Hoiyasala Dynasty/Mysore (of 12th c AD).

A inscription of 1050 c AD from Mysore Tract (EC, VII SK 118) attests Trading Corporations of Nanadesa Tisaiya Yirattu Ainnurruvar which traded, among other commodities, in elephants, horses, sapphires, moonstones, pearls, rubies & other gems. The countries of trade are mostly located in middle to southern India. These corporations are stated to have trading links, among others, with the Kambhojas and Parsas/Pahlavas (Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy (ARSIE 342 of 1912); History & Culture of Indian People Vol V, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar etc p 527).

The Kambhoja of the above references, said to be contiguous to Saurashtra, Dhanustra, Lata etc is obviously located somewhere in south-west India. The Parsa (Pahlava) is also in the countries list. The Parsa/Pahlava here also probably refers to their south-western settlement (ref to nairrtyam dizi dezah Pahlava Kamboja.... a Brhatsamhita evidence for the Kamboja/Pahlava settlements in south-west India).

It is due to this numerous literary/inscriptional evidence as presented above that some historians like Dr Aiyangar, Dr Banerjee etc tend to locate their Kamboja in Sindhu/Gujarat. Obviously, their Kamboja relates to the post-Christian settlements of migrant Kambojas in western/or south-western India and is not the original Kamboja of the ancient Sanskrit literature.

Some historians have invested western Kshatrapas, especially the Kshahrata Kshatrapas with Kamboja ethnicity (Ancient India, Vol III, pp 94, 125, Dr T. L. Shah)

Kamboja Raja Kathalu ( story of king of Kambojas) is still very popular in Andhra traditions which treats of the militaristic exploits of some fierce, daring-do and adventuours king of Kambojas. The story probably refers to some historical brush of the Kamboja hordes with the people of Andhra around Christian era.

The Kamboja hordes of second/1ist c BC have left indelible foot prints in the names of mountains, rivers, and some geographical places in western india. The Kamb/Kambuh river and Kamboh/Kambo mountain in Sindh ( Sind, p 44, M. R. Lamrick) remind us of Sanskrit Kamboja (Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 305/306, Dr J. L. Kamboj). The Kamboi (ancient town/port), Kambhey (port), Gambhu, Kumbarivaji in Surashtra and an ancient town named Kumbhoj/Kambhoj in Kohlapur, in Maharashtra, as also the Koimb-toor city of Caranatica in southern India bear witness to their probable connections with the migrant Kambojas. There is a Kambhe Kshatrya caste in Gujarat. There is also a Kambhoja caste living near Nanded, in Maharashtra. They are probably a dwindling remnant of ancient Kambojas (Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 304-05, Dr J. L. Kamboj)

Kambojas in Bengal

A third branch of these Central Asian Kambojas seems to have migrated eastwards along the Himalayan foothills, hence their notice in the chronicles of Tibet (Kam-po-ji/Kam-po-ce) and Nepal (Kambojadesa). Brahma Purana (53/16) mentions Kambojas with Pragjyotisas and Tamraliptikas. Sasanavmsa (P.T.S., pp 64-65, 83 etc) attests the Kambojas in Burma also. They were probably a section of those Kambojas who figure in history of Bengal. They had made an unsuccesful bid to conquer Gauda during the reign of king Devapala. A latter attempt of Kambojas was crowned with success and they deprived the Palas of the suzerainty over Gauda and set up one of their chiefs as king (History of India, p 399, Dr V. A. Smith; Some Kshatrya Tribes of Ancient India, p 251, Dr B. C. Law; Vangalar Itihaas p 182, 184, R. D. Banerjee; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 310-340, Dr J. L. Kamboj).

The Kambojas rule in Bengal lasted until they were desposed by resurgent Palas in 980 AD.

Rajyapala, Narayanapala, Nayapala, Dharamapala and Gaudapati, also known as Kunjarghatavarshayan, are the known Kamboja kings who ruled in north-west Bengal. Kamboja rule in north-west Bengal is attested from Dinajpore Pillar Inscription as well as from Irda Tamrapatra found in Irda, District Balasor, Orissa, in 1931 and edited and published by Dr N. G. Majumdar in 1934.

Dinajpore Pillar inscription refers to a Kamboja king who calls himself as Kambojanvayjen Gaudapati.. i.e. the lord of Gauda born in a Kamboja family (Indian Antiquary, Vol I, 1872, pp 127ff, 195ff, 227 ff; Journal of Royal Society of Bengal, Vol II, 1911, pp 615-19). In the inscription, he is addressed as Kunjarghataversheyan, which may be his personal name.

Irda-Tamrapatra inscription details generation after generation of kings belonging to Kamboja family. King Rajayapala, the founder father of Pala-Kamboja empire in Bengal specifically refers to himself as Kamboja.vamshatilaka.paramasaugata.maharajadhiraja.parameshvara.paramabhattaraka Rajyapala ( Epigaphia Indica, XXII, 1933-34, pp 150-58, Dr N. G. Majumdar)

Kambojas in Sri Lanka

An earlier section of the north-western Kambojas appears to have reached Sri Lanka via Gujarat/Surashtra, several centuries before Christian era, thus contributing to the colonization of that island and influencing the social and economical lives of its people. This is evident from six or seven ancient cave inscriptions found in Anuradhapura which powerfully attest the existence of Kamboja Goshatha/Sangha (gote Kabojhiana...Archaological Survey of Ceylon, Inscription Register No 316) and the grand Kamboja Guild (Kabojiya mahapughyana.....op. cit. Inscription Register No 1118) in ancient Sinhala. These Inscriptions are said to belong to 3rd c BC (Dr S. Paranavitana).

David Parkin and Ruth Barnes write:

ARCHAOLOGICAL EVIDENCE ON SHIPPING COMMUNITIES:

These inscriptions indicate that the Kambojas had organised themselves into corporations and were certainly engaged in trade. The Sihalavatthu , a Pali text of about the fourth century (on page 109) attests that a group of people called the Kambojas were in Rohana. In the third story of this text, called Metteyya-vatthu, we are informed that the Elder named Maleyya was residing in Kamboja-gama, in the province (Janapada) of Rohana on the Island of Tambapanni . The Kambojas are often mentioned together with Yonas (Yavanas), Gandharas and Sakas. The Kambojas were a native population of Arachosia in the extreme west of the Mauryan empire, speaking a language of Iranian origin (See: Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology on the Indian Ocean, 2002, pp 108-109, David Parkin and Ruth Barnes).

Himanshu Prabha Ray writes:

THE MERCHANT LINEAGE AND THE GUILD:

It is significant that early Buddhist literary sources from north India refer to the northerners as being involved in trade in horses. The inscriptions referring to the Kabojha or Kambojas are found in ancient Rohana and associate the region with the gamika or village functionary (Paranavitana 1970: nos. 622, 623, 625), there are references to the Guild of the Kabojhiyas and its chief (Kabojhiya-maha-pugiyana, no. 553; parumaka or chief of the gota (Sanskrit gostha) Kabojikana, no. 990). The Sihalavatthu, a Pali text of the fourth century, refers to a village of the Kambojas in Rohana.(Kamboja-gama) (See: The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia, Cambridge World Archaeology, 2003, p 206, Himanshu Prabha Ray).

These archaological and literary references powerfully demonstrate that the Kambojas had formed an important section of ancient Sinhala society starting many centuries prior to Christian era (Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, p 341-355; cf: History of Ceylon, Vol I, part I, p 88-92, Dr S. Paranavitana)

Mahavamsa traditions tell us that Vijay Simha and his 700 companions.. the supposed ancestors of Sinhalese Aryan speaking population of Sri Lanka, originally belonged to some 'Simhapura' region in Jambudvipa (Mahavamsa, 6/34). Interestingly, the ancient Brahmanical and Buddhist texts as well as Chinese travelographer Hiuen Tsiang (7th c AD) attests one Simhapura near Jammu, contiguous to ancient Kamboja/Gandhara. Further, Sinhala as a personal name, is also attested from two Kharoshati inscriptions found from Loriyan Tangai and Takshila in ancient Gandhara (Kharoshthi Inscriptions, pp 87, 110, Dr. S Konow).

It is also interesting to notice that the ancient cave inscriptions of Anuradhapura/Sri Lanka make no refence to any other Aryan community of north India excepting the Kambojas as living in the island in pre-Christian times. Besides Aryan speaking Kambojas, another dominant community referenced in the inscriptions is Dameda or Tamil from the Dravidian group. The Kamboja, as an ethnic name, occurs in six or seven inscriptions, whereas the term 'Sinhala' is not attested at all. These inscriptions specifically attest 'Grand Kamboja Guilds' and also one 'Kamboja Sangha' located in ancient Sri Lanka.

Archaological finds of lapis lazuli in Sri Lanka conclusively connects it to Badakshan in Afghanistan, the home of lapis lazuli. The most famous locale for lapis lazuli since ancient times has been in Badakshan, Afghanistan, which has been mined for over 6000 years ( G. Hermann; Lapis Lazuli, The Early Phases of its trade, Iraq 30, part 1, p 21-57; also Dr Michael Witzel, Early Eastern Iran and the Atharveda, Persica-9, 1980, p 102, fn 3 ). The best lapis lazuli is still quarried from Badakshan as it was when Macro Polo visited the quarry in AD 1271. And Badakshan undoubtedly formed part of ancient Kamboja as we have already discussed above.

The Simhapura of Vijay, the supposed ancestor of Sinhalas, may have been the Simhapura located contiguous to Ursa (modern Hazara District), near the Gandhara/Kamboja group.

This north-west 'Simhapura' as neighbor to Urga/Ursa (modern Hazara/Kashmir), Bahlika (north-west Panjab) as well as to the Kambojas and Daradas on upper Indus north/west of Kashmir is attested in the Mahabharata (II.27.18-23), which name is reflected in Arjuna's Digvijay expedition into the north-west.

Sanskrit:

Uragavasina.n chaiva rochamAna.n rane.ajayat ..18.//

tatah Sinhapura.n ramya.n chitrayudhasurakshitam/ .

DaradansahaKambojairajayatpakashAsanih .. 22.//

— (MBH 2/27/18-22)

Chatya Jataka also locates one Simhapura in the west (Jataka Trans III, p 275).

More importantly, Hiuen Tsiang, a seventh century Chinese visitor to India also attests one Simhapura principality on east bank of river Indus, and localizes it in upper Jhelum/Chenab doab, about 115 miles east of Taxila (Ref: Hiuen Tsiang Sang-ho-pu-lo (=Sinhapura), Buddhist Records of the Western World, Vol. I. Translated by Samuel Beal. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1906, pp142-150; History and culture of Indian People, Vol IV, p 33 ).

In the Amarakosa (11.6.42; 111.9.78), a Sarthavaha is described as the leader of merchants who have invested an equal amount of capital and carried on trade with outside markets and are travelling in a caravan.

Hence it is possible that Vijay Simha, the supposed ancestor of the Sinhalas was one such Sarthavaha from this Simhapura of the Kamboja/Gandhara group in North-west India. According to Mahavamsa traditions, Vijay Simha and his 700 companions had landed in Sri Lanka in 543 (or 483?) BC, on the day of Buddha's heavenly departure. This may actually refer to Vijay's commercial visit to Sri Lanka for trade with the Daemedas/Tamils in Sinhala and then permanently settling there with his 700 merchant associates. The Daemeda/Tamil groups were already settled there with whom the trade was routinely carried on from the north-west via ancient Kamboja-Dvarka trade Route followed by the west-coast sea-route from Bharukachcha onwards.

The appellative terms such as Gamika (=Gamini=Gramini) and Parumaka (=Pramukha) as also the corporational terms such as Puga (=Guild/Sangha) and Gote (=Goshati=corporation) etc used specifically in reference to the Kambojas in ancient Sinhalese inscriptions are powerful indicators that Vijay and his 700 companions may have been from the Kamboja/Gandhara trade group. These republican/corporational terms having common usage in political, military as well as commercial sphere were prevalent among the republican Kambojas of the north-west around 4th c BC, as Kautiliya's Arthashastra also witnesses for us.

The north-west coast of Sinhala was famous for its fine variety of motis/gems and was known as Motimannar. The south-east coast was also known for its precious stones. The merchants from north-west Kamboj may have had allurement for these specific products (cf: Kamboja= Kamniya.bhoja....the Kambojas as enjoyers/or fond of pleasant or beautiful things...Yasaka Nirukuta (II/2), commented by Acharya Durga; cf: tunga.draviynah.rashyah of Kambojas attested by Raghuvamsa (4.69-70); cf: Kambojah...yama.vaishravan.opamah..MBH (7/23/42) implyng enormous riches of ancient Kambojas. All these references imply opulence and luxurious lives of ancient Kambojas which they must have achieved by way of trade/business)

[Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 341-355, Dr Kamboj].

Kambojas in Indo-China

It is perfectly conceivable that some ambitious families from these adventurous Sinhalese Kambojas had ventured to Indo-China around third or fouth c AD, originally as merchants/traders later joined by some Kshatrya Kamboja chieftain and had managed to found a Kamboja colony north of Funan, which later grew into powerful Kamboja empire under Varman kings. If the European traders, located thousands of miles away could do it in India in 17/18th C, the Kamboja adventurers located in Gujarat/Surashtra or more probably from Srilanka could have done it too, in 5/6th c in nearby Indo-China. The Kambojas as traders and as community were already flourishing in Sri Lanka at this time as is evident from the archaological evidence presented above. And it was just one little step farward, and they were in Indo-China. At least, the early kings of Kambuja indeed belonged to these Indo-Iranian Kambojas. The learned king Kambu (from Sanskrit Kamboj), the legendary patriarch of the Kamboja line of kings in Cambodia must have come from these Gujarati or Sri Lankan Kambojas. The traditions of north-Indian Kambojas lend adequate credibility to this view. Several noted scholars like Dr Buddha Parkash, Dr P. C. Bagchi, Dr B. R. Chatterjee, J. Fergussan, Bombay Gezetteer, Dr J. L. Kamboj and several others have accepted a direct historical and political link between the Indian Kambojas and Kambodia. G. Coedes, an authority on ancient Cambodian history, has also accepted the probability of this connection (Indianized States of South-East 1964, page 47).

One school of scholars including Dr V. A. Smith, Dr Joveau Dubreuil, Dr V. Venkayya, Dr B. L. Rice, G. Coedes etc is convinced that the Pallava rulers of Kanchi /Southern India were a section from the Iranian Pahlavas (cf: G. Coedes, The Indianised States of South-East Asia, 1967, p 47. See also references quoted by Coedes in the index). The Pahlavas were a tribe closely allied to the Kambojas. Thus, some adventurous families from both Pahlavas and the Kambojas who are attested to have settled in south-west India in post-Christian era (Ref Brahata Samhita of Varahamihira (14/17) may indeed have founded the Pallava dynasty of Kanchi and the Kambuja dynasty of Cambodia respectively.

Ancient Kamboja-Dvarvati Caravan Route

Ankuravathu section of Petavathu Jataka (verses 257-258) attests the existance of a carvan route from ancient Kamboja to Dvarvati.

Pali:

Yassa atthaya gacchama Kambojam dhana-haraka /

ayam kamdado yakkho imam yakkham nyamase //

imam yakkham gahetvaana sadhuken pasaham va/

yanam aropayitvana khippam gacchama Dvarakam//.

— (Ankuravathu section of Petavathu Jataka, verses 257-258)

English:

we go to Kamboja with a desire to harvest wealth,

here is more wish-fulfilling Yakkha,

we want to carry this Yakkha forward,

We want to seize this Yakkha, in the good one or by force,

put it on the carts and go (return) fast to Dváraka.

Dr Sircar writes: This Ankuravathu section of the Petavathu (verse 257-58) suggests that there was a direct caravan route between Davarka (Dvarvati) in Kathiwar and the country of Kambojas in Kandhar/Afghanistan (The Land of the Kambojas, Purana, Vol V, No 2, July 1963, p 254. Dr D. C. Sircar)

Dr Aggarwala comments: 'In the Petvathu commentary, there is a reference to a long trade-route called Davarvati-Kamboja route.....this route has been existing from the times of the Indus valley. From what we know of these ancient routes, it is clear that the hub for the branching of various routes was Bahlika (modern Balkh). Here the Uttarapatha-route from Tamralipiti-Patliputra-Varanasi-Kausambi-Mathura-Sakali-Takshila-Pushkaravati-Kapisi terminated; so also the Davaravati-Kamboja route ended here, and both of these northern and Southern routes from India restarted towards Kamboja in (Pamir Badakshan) to pick up with the silk-routes from China' (Purana, Vol V, No 2, July 1963, Identification of Kamboja, page 359, Dr V. S. Aggarwala; also ref: Ancient Indian Geography).

[See also: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 251-252, Dr J. L. Kamboj, Delhi Univ; The Bhakti Cult and Ancient Indian Geography, Dr V. S. Aggarwala, [Ed] Dr D. C. Sircar, p 141ff; A History of India, Vol I, pp 105-108, Dr Romila Thapar].

According to D.P.P.N. also, the country (Kamboja) was evidently on one of the great caravan routes and there was a road direct from Dváraka to Kamboja (see: Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, Vol I, 1960, G. P. Malalasekera, p 526; also Pv.p.23).

Kautiliya Arathashastra (11/1/4) lists Kamboja with Surashtra and informs us that same form of politico-economic system (varta-shastropajivin) prevailed in these two ancient martial republics. It attests the Kambojas and Surashtrians as living by agriculture, trade and by weilding weapons.

Sanskrit:

Kambhoja-Surashtra kshatriya shrenadyo varta-shasteropajivin/

— (Kautiliya Arthashastra, 11/1/4)

Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira (5/35) also notes the Kambojas as living by trade, agriculture and warfare.

Sanskrit:

Pancala Kalinga Surasenah Kamboja Udra Kirata shastra varttah/

— (Brhatsamhita 5/36)

The same characteristics of the Kambojas are attested in the Mahabharata (Kambojah........yama.vaishravanopamah, MBH 7/23/42).

There is sufficient evidence to show that ancient Kambojas had been in direct economic and political intercourse with western India including Surashtra/Gujarat since ancient times (Bahu/Sagara vs Haihayas, Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas battles per Puranic legends etc). And there was a regular traffic of men and merchandise occurring between north-west and western India.

It is likely that this regular traffic in trade and commerce between Kamboja and Surashtra may have led to their adoption of identical kind of socio-political constitutions also.

Once the traders/merchants from Kamboja/Gandhara/Bahlika had reached Surashtra/Gujarat, several important sea ports like Barbaricum, Bharukaccha (present-day Bharoch) and Soparaka Pattana (present-day Nalla-Sopara, near Mumbai) also became accessible to them for sea-trade with western world on one hand and with southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Suvarna-Bhumi and beyond to Indo-China on the other.

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a marine guidebook of 1st century A.D. by an anonymous Graeco-Egyptian merchant makes mention of several ports beginning with Barbaricum at the mouth of Indus followed by Barygaza ( modern Bhroach), Sopara (near Bombay), Calliena and Muziris (Kerala) etc located along the west coast of India downwards. From China, says the author of The Periplus of the. Erythraean Sea raw silk and silk yarn and silk cloth are brought on foot through Bactria to Barygaza (Wheeler, M. , Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers, p. 156). The numerous valuable objects discovered in course of excavations at Taxila and Begram (Kapisha/Kamboja) bear evidence of this close trade-relationship of Bahlika/Kamboja/Gandhara (Afghanistan) with western world.

The commerce of the Western Indian coast was so lucrative that Bhroach and Sopara had trade settlements or stations in the Gulf, the presence of foreign citizens, being of course entrepreneurial in nature. It is also indicated by the fact that these merchants were able to pay extremely high rates of interest (25%), as evidenced by the Vienna Papyrus (Reade, J., The Indian Ocean in Antiquity, p. 295, Ray, H. P., A Resurvey of Roman Contacts with the West, a paper in Athens, Aden, Arikamedu, ed. By Baussac and Salles, p. 103) of mid-second century A.D., undoubtedly by reaping enormous profits from the Indo-Roman trade.

Within the subcontinent also, overland and maritime trade with the South (Dakshinapatha) was being explored. It was specially with the growth of land-borne trade, that the caravan-merchants or the Sarthavahas (Pali Sathavaha) came into existence and eventually occupied a pre-eminent position in society (Epigraphia Indica, XIX, p. 66; X. Nos. 1062, 1065, 1066). The inland traders covered long distances, for example between Takshasila and Varanasi (Chhatopadhyay, B., Kishana State and Indian Society, p. 191; Mahavastu, II.). There was regular trade between Sávatthi and Uttarápatha (Petavatthu Commentary (P.T.S.), 100). The chief divisions included in Uttarapatha are mentioned in the Páli literature as Kasmíra-Gandhára and Kamboja (Online Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names...see entry under Uttarapatha). This region was famous from very early times for its horses and horse-dealers (See, e.g., Vinaya Pitaka, Vol III, 6, ed. Oldenberg (Williams and Norgate) ; Samantapásádiká, I. (P.T.B.), 175), and horses were brought down for sale from there to such cities as Benares (Játaka, ed. Fausboll, Vol II, 287; Political and Social Movements in Ancient Panjab, p 138, Dr Buddha Parkash).

In Jain canonical text also, Bharukachcha is quoted as 'donamukha' where goods were carried by land and water routes (Life in ancient India as depicted in Jain canons, p 273, J. C. Jain). Besides Periplus, Ptolemy (Geography, P 33) also mentions Barygaza (Bharukachha) as a great commercial center situated at the estuary of Narbada. Soparka (Sopara) is stated to be a great commercial center and residence of traders (Brhatkalpa Bhashya, I, 2506)

Báhiya Dárucíriya an arahant born in in Bhárukaccha (Apadána (Pali Text Series), II. 476) had engaged himself in trade, voyaging in a ship. Seven times he had sailed from upper Indus downwards and across the sea and returned safely home. This Buddhist evidence shows that besides Kamboja-Dravati land route, the river Indus was also used as a water-route from upper Indus/Kamboj down to Sea.

Archaological evidence reveals the existence of many land-locked ports including the one called Kamboi in Surashtra (See: Ancient Ports of Gujarat, A.R. Dasgupta, Deputy Director, SIIPA, SAC, Ahmedabad, M. H. Raval Ex. Director, Directorate of Archeaology, Ahmedabad).

The modern Kamboi is attested as Kamboika in 10th c AD records (G. Buhler, Indian Antiquary, VI, 1877, pp 191-92). Kamboika is corruption of Kambojika (Dr J. L Kamboj) which is equivalent to Sanskrit Kamboja..

There is also an evidence of ancient Gandhara port in Surashtra.

Further, the ancient Buddhist texts reveal that there was regular trade between Bharukaccha, Suppáraka and Suvannabhumi (See, e.g., Jataka Fausboll, ..iii.188; Apadána.ii.476 (vs.13f.)(Pali Text Series); Manorathapúraní, Anguttara Commentary, I.156, (S.H.B.)

The distance between Ceylon and Suvannabhúmi was seven hundred leagues, and with a favourable wind could be covered in seven days and nights (Manorathapúraní, Anguttara Commentary, I.265, (S.H.B.)

All these ancient Buddhist references show that nations from north-west including the Kamboja, Gandhara, Kashmira, Sindhu, Sovira etc were in trade loop with western Indian sea ports and huge trade ships regularily plied between western Indian ports and Southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Suvarnabhumi and Indo-China peninsula. (cf: All Gratitude To Myanmar, S. N. Goenka, Vipassana Newsletter Vol. 7, No. 10 Dec 97).

No doubt, we find powerful signatures of the Kambojas in Sri Lanka, Bengal, Burma and to all probability in Cambodia also.

The chief export products from Kamboja were horses, ponies, blankets embroidered with threads of gold, kambu/kambuka silver, zinc, mashapurni, hingpurni, somvalak/Punga, walnuts, almonds, raisin and precious stones including lapis lazuli, emerald, amethyst etc.

Kambojas and Kambohs

The Kambohs or Kambojs living in upper India are identified as the modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas. They are found as Hindu, Sikhs, Mohamdan, Buddhists and Jains as well.

It is very interesting to observe that modern Kamboj are still found living chiefly by agriculture, trade, business and military service which were the chief professions followed by their Kamboja ancestors some 2500 years ago, as powerfully attested by Kautiliya in his Arathashastra (11/1/04), as also in the Brahata Samhita of Varahamihira (5/35) .

Besides in Panjab, the Kambojs are also found living in Delhi, UP and in Maharashtra. An ancient town 'Kamboi' in Surashtra and 'Kambhoj' in District Kohlapur/Maharashtra remind us of the Kamboja foot prints left in western India. The Kamboh Darwaza in Meerut in UP is named after them (Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar). There are numerous place names in north-western India which carry unmistakeable relics of Sanskrit name Kamboja.

The Tajiks, Siyaposh Kaffirs (Kam/Kamoz/Kamtoz/Katir), the Aspins, Yashkuns and Yusufzais ( from Ispzai/Aspzai....see The Pathans by Caroe Olaf) of eastern Afghanistan are considered by various scholars as the modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas. (Ancient Kamboja, people and the Country, 1981, Dr Kamboj, p 165, 248; Comprehensive History India, Vol II, p 118, Dr N. K. Shastri; Bharatbhumi aur unke Nivasi, Dr Jaychandra Vidyalankar, p 313-14 ; Political History of Ancient India, Dr Raychaudhury, 1996, p 133 etc)

The modern Kambohs/Kambojs are said to be ancient inhabitants of Persia (Panjab Castes, Denzil Ibbeston, p 148; Glossary of Tribes, H. A. Rose, p 443).

Hindu Kambohs claim to be related to the Rajputs and to have come from Persia through southern Afghanistan.(The Sikh, A. H. Bingley, p 57; Encylopedia of Sikh Religion & Culture, 1997, p 24, Dr Gobind Singh Mansukhani, Romesh Chander Dogra).

The Sikh Kamboj of Kapurthala/Jullundur, Panjab claim descent from Raja Karan. (op cit, Rose, p 443; Panjab Castes, Denzil Ibbeston, p 148).

Mohammdan Kambohs state that they have descended from ancient Kai dynasty of Persia, to which the emperors Kaikaus, Kaikhusro, Kaikubad, Kai-lehrashab and Darius all belonged. On the last king of the dynasty having been dethroned, and expelled from the country, he wandered about some time with his family and dependents in the neighboring countries and finally settled in Panjab (Op cit., p 24, Dr Gobind Singh Mansukhani, Romesh Chander Dogra; Glossary of tribes, H. A. Rose, p 443, 444; op cit, 57, A. H. Bingley; Supplementary Glossary, H. M. Elliot, pp 304/305 etc etc).

Kai-Khusro (=Kurosh ), Kai Cam-buksh (=Cambyses or Kambujiya) are said to have been great kings from Kai/Achemenean line of the Persians (Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Vol I, 65, Col James Todd).

Mohamadan Kambohs/Kambojs were very influential and powerful in the early days of Moghul rule. Shahbaz Khan Kamboh was the most trusted general of Akbar (The Sikhs, p 57, A. H. Bingley). Sheikh Gadai Kamboh was the Sadar-i-Jahan of Emperor (Akbar Nama, by Abu L-Fazl, Trans H. Blochman, p 122). The Sayyids and the Kambohs from among the Indian Muslims were specially favored for high military and civil positions during Moghul rule (The Mughal Nobility Under Aurangzeb, 2002, p 21, M. Athar Ali; cf: Cultural History of India, 1999, p 261, A. L. Basham)

The Kambohs held Nakodar in Jullundur and Sohna in Gurgaon some centuries ago; and the tombs and mosques that they have left in Sohna show that they must have enjoyed considerable position (Glossary, p 443, H. A. Rose).

Numerous foreign and Indian writers have described the modern Kambojs/Kambohs as one of the finest class of agriculturists of India (A. H. Bingley; Denzil Ibbeston; H. A. Rose, Kulwant Singh Virk; M. S. Randhawa, Vice Chancellor, Agriculture Univ Ludhiana, Principal Sewa Singh etc). In his Glossary of Tribes, Rose remarks that the Kambohs and Ahirs agriculturists are the first rank husbandmen and he places them above the Jatts (Glossary of Tribes, Vol II, pp 6, 442). Col Lal Singh Kamboj, landlord from Uttar Pardesh was the first Indian farmer to win the prestigious Padam-Shri award for progressive farming in 1968 from President of India. According to Dr M. S. Randhawa ICS, (ex-Vice Chancellor, Agri Univ Ludhiana), the Kamboj farmers have no equals in industry and tenacity (Out of Ashes, p 60). According to Principal Sewa Singh: "....The Kambojs have made great contributions in agriculture and military fields. They occupy exactly the same position in general farming as the Ramgarhias occupy in general industry. The majority of Krishi Pandit awards in Rajasthan/India have been won by the Kamboj agriculturists".

Several observers have described the modern Kambojs as very industrious, stiff-necked, turbulent, skillful, provident and enterprising race of people (A. H Bingley, H. A. Rose) .

Some British ethnologists have described the Kambojs to be ethnically more akin to the Afghans than any of the Hindu races among which they have now settled for generations [The Sikhs, A. H. Bingley, p 57).

There is a mediaval era Persian proverb current in north-west which conveys that the Afghans, the Kambohs (Kamboj) and the Kashmiris... all three are rogues:

Agar kuht-ul-riajl uftad, azeshan uns kam geeri,

Eke Afghan, doum Kamboh, seum badzat Kashmiri'.

— (Persian proverb)

This old proverb conveys the indisputable fact that in the distant past, the Persians, the Afghans, the Kambojs/Kambohs and the Kasmiris had been living pretty much as neighbores and were, therefore, an inter-related racial group.

As against above proverb and with reference to the Kambojs, an another scholar, Sardar Gurdial Singh, notes that, during the reign of terror, it was the Kambojs/Kambohs only who were most trusted by the rich bankers for carrying their cash in the disguise of faqirs. (Glossaray of Tribes, Rose, p 444).

The Kambojs have been noted for their courage, tenacity and stamina for fighting.

'They (Kamboj) make excellent soldiers, being of very fine physique and possessing great courage.....They have always been noted for their cunning strategy, which now, being far less 'slim' than in former times, has developed into the permissible stretegy of war' (The Sikhs and the Wars: Reginald Holder..From Panjab Past & Present Vol IV, Part I, April 1970, S.No 7, Edited by Dr Ganda Singh)

The modern Kamboj are generally tall, well-built, sharp featured, generally very fair (gaura varna) race having brown, some times redish hair, and brown or sometimes gray eye color and long sharp noses. Kamboj women are also noted for their beauty.

In ancient references also, the Kambojas have been described as very handsome race (parbhadra.kastu Kambojah: Mahabharata 7/23/43). Kamboja princes are noted as tall (pramshu.n 8/56/113), exceedingly handsome (sudarshanya, 7/92/74, priyadarshanam, 8/56/113), of gaura varna, with faces illustrious like full moon (purnachandrabhavaktra.n, 8/56/113), lotus eyed (kamalapatraksamatyartham 8/56/113), handsome like the lord-moon among the stars (taaraa.adhipa.upamah, MBH 1/67/31). Even Ramayana calls the Kambojas as 'ravisanibha' i.e with faces illustrious like the Sun (Ramayana verse 1/55/2).

Ancient Kamboja ladies were also noted for their beauty (Hindu World, p 520, Benjamin Walker; MBH 11/25/1-8)

The total population of this people, still calling themselves as Kamboj (or prikritic Kamboh, or Kamoz) is said to be around 1.5 million, rest of their population, over the time, having submerged with other occupationalized castes/groups of the subcontinent.

Numerous of their clan names over-lap with other Kshatryas and the Rajput castes of the north-west India, thereby suggesting that some of the Rajput clans of north-west have descended from the Ancient Kambojas.

The Kambojs/Kambohs practiced weapon-worship in the past but the practice is now going out of vogue.