The Moldavian Magnate Wars refer to the period at the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century when the magnates of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth intervened in the affairs of Moldavia, clashing with the Habsburgs and the Ottoman Empire for domination of the territory.

The Magnate Wars (1593-1617)

Jan Zamoyski, Polish grand crown chancellor and grand crown hetman, known for his opposition towards the Habsburgs, had been a vocal supporter of Commonwealth expansion in that direction. Since the early plans made by Commonwealth King Stefan Batory for the war against the Ottomans, Zamoyski supported them, viewing those plans as a good long term strategy for the Commonwealth. Any policy that was against the Ottomans was supported by the Vatican, and Pope Sixtus V strongly expressed his support for any war between the Commonwealth and the Ottomans. Three powerful magnate families from the Commonwealth, Potoccy , Koreccy and Wiśniowieccy , were related to the Moldavian ruler hospodar Ieremia Movilă (Jeremi Mohyła), and after his death in 1606, they supported his descendants.

Around the end of 16th century, the relations between the Commonwealth and the Ottomans, never too cordial, further worsened with the growing number of independent actions by Cossacks. From the second part of the 16th century, Cossacks started raiding (chadzki) territories under Ottoman rule. The Commonwealth could not control the fiercely independent Cossacks, but was held responsible for them, since at that time they were nominally under Commonwealth rule. Reciprocally, Tatars living under Ottoman rule were raiding the Commonwealth, but the Tatars were raiding mostly the south-eastern areas of the Commonwealth, which were fairly sparsely inhabited, while the Cossacks were raiding the heart of Ottoman Empire, wealthy merchant port cities, which were just two days away from the mouth of the river Dniepr, which the Cossacks used as their main transportation route. By 1615, Cossacks had even burned the townships on the outskirts of Istanbul. Consecutive treaties between Ottoman Empire and the Commonwealth called both parties to curb Cossacks and Tatars but its execution was almost nonexistent on the both sides of the border. In internal agreements, forced by Polish side, Cossacks agreed to burn their boats and stop raiding. However, boats could be rebuilt quickly, and the Cossacks' style of life required glory and booty. Sometimes Cossacks just needed money to live, sometimes Habsburgs bribed them to ease Ottoman pressure on their own borders, many Cossacks hated Tatars, who after all burned their estates and villages (the feeling was quite mutual here). Cossacks almost yearly raided the Ottomans territories and vassals near the Black Sea, almost always causing the retaliatory Tatar raids (or vice versa). The ensuing chaos and string of retaliations often turned the entire south-eastern Commonwealth border into a low-level warzone.

In 1593, war between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburgs started. In 1594 a very strong Tatar raid (about 20,000-30,000 led by the khan of Crimea, Gazi Gerej II ) plundered Pokucie and through mountain passes moved to Hungary to plunder Habsburg lands. Commonwealth troops gathered too late to intercept it. The duke of Transylvania, Sigismund Bathory (nephew of former Polish king Stefan Batory), had strengthened Habsburg influence in Moldavia by setting Ştefan Răzvan (Stefan Rozwan) on the Moldavian throne.

Pro-Polish hospodar was mostly tolerated by the Ottomans when the Commonwealth was anti-Habsburg or neutral and relations between Poland and the Commonwealth were good. Therefore, when Emperor Rudolf II's forces gained control of Moldavia, Transylvania (Polish: Siedmiogród) and support of Mihai Viteazul (Polish: Michał Waleczny), hospodar of Wallachia (Polish: Wołoszczyzna), the Ottomans didn't look too favourably at the Commonwealth ingeration.

Mihai Viteazul, hospodar of Wallachia

In 1595 Zamoyski, persuaded by Moldavian emigrants, decided to intervene. The Commonwealth forces (numbering ~7,000-8,000 soldiers) under hetman Jan Zamoyski marched through Dniestr river, defeated the local opposition (while Transylvanian troops retreated to their own country) and Ottoman reinforcements and set Ieremia Movilă on the Moldavian throne as a Commonwealth vassal. This was seen by many as very dangerous step because Ottomans were preparing to place their own candidate on Moldavian throne. Zamoyski contacted grand vizier Sinan Pasha and negotiated with Ottoman governor in Tiahin (on the Black Sea coast, near Dniepr river) and convinced them of his peaceful intentions and that he did not want to fight with the Ottoman Empire. However, the khan of Crimea, Gazi Gerej II, reacted and entered Moldavia with about 20000 men (but no cannons and few janissaries). Zamoyski fortified his camp near Cecora at Prut river, withstood a three day siege (17-20 October), and managed to obtain agreement from the Ottoman Empire recognizing Movilă as hospodar (Treaty of Cecora ). Moldavia became Commonwealth's vassal and paid tribute to Istanbul at the same time (this is known as condominium - territory under rule of two sovereign powers). Not satisfied with this, previous hospodar Stefan Rozwan invaded Moldavia, but his troops were crushed by Zamoyski and Răzvan was impaled by Movilă.

In 1599, the hospodar of Wallachia, Mihai Viteazul, wishing to unite Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania, defeated the ruler of Transylvania, Andrzej Batory (who lost his life fleeing after battle), and took over Transylvania. Later, Mihai defeated Ieremia Movilă and took control over almost all of Moldavia (except Chocim, which remained in Polish hands). Mihai used title of hospodar of Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia for the first time in May 1600. He tried to get recognition from Emperor Rudolf II and proposed to become a vassal of the Commonwealth and organize an anti-Turkish league. After Zygmunt III's refusal, Mihai sent his troops to take over Pokucie (area Moldavians were claiming to be theirs) but Commonwealth hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski forced his troops to retreat. In the meantime, Mihai's troops were defeated by revolting Hungarian nobles supported by the Emperor's troops led by general Basta.

In 1600 Zamoyski and hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz gathered Commonwelath and forces returned to Moldavia, where they fought against Mihai Viteazul, hospodar of Wallachia, who conquered Moldavia few months earlier. Zamoyski He defeated Mihai under Bukova (Bucovu) in Wallachia (battle at river Telezyna near Ploieşti) restored Ieremia Movilă to the throne, and helped his brother, Simeon Movilă to gain the throne of Wallachia in Bucharest, thus temporarily extending the sphere of Commonwealth influence south to the Dunaj river. Commonwealth was unable to fortify those gains as the Polish-Swedish War just started and majority of the Commonwealth forces were desperately needed to protect the Inflanty (Livonia) region. Year later the Ottomans removed Simeon Movilă and put Radu Şerban on Wallachian throne. Commonwealth managed to retained control over Moldavia and the only side without any gains were the Habsburgs, who lost control over all of their former possessions in that region.

Ieremia Movilă died in 1606. In 1607 Stefan Potocki set his brother-in-law and son of Ieremia, Constantin Movilă (Konstanty Mohyła), on the Moldavian throne. However, Stefan Potocki was one of the pro-Habsburg magnates and Gabriel Batory , the anti-Habsburg ruler of Transylvania, removed Constantin Movilă in 1611. The Moldavian throne now fell to Ştefan Tomşa (Tomża).

A second intervention by Stefan Potocki (with the silent support of Zygmunt III, but against the will of Sejm and Senate) in 1612 was a failure. Potocki's 7,000 strong army was defeated in battle of Sasowy Róg (near Ştefăneşti ) by troops of Tomşa and Kantymir's Tatars of Bucak Horde . Stefan Potocki and Constantin Movilă ended in Ottoman prison in Constantinople. A counter-raid of Tatars and Tomşa on the Commonwealth was stopped by Żółkiewski without a fight and an agreement between Żółkiewski and Tomşa was signed in October 1612 (at Chocim). Tomşa assured about his friendliness, that he will help to patch up conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Commonwealth and sworn allegiance to Polish king.

In 1613, when Zygmunt signed a de-facto anti-Turkish defensive treaty with the Habsburgs, counting on their support for his restoration to the Swedish throne, it further moved Poland into the enemy camp from Turkish point of view. Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski, with a demonstration of force, induced Moldavians and Turks to compromise and signed an agreement in 1612 with Ştefan Tomşa at Chocim.

In 1614 sultan Ahmed I wrote to Zygmunt III that he sends Ahmed pasha to punish “those bandits”, that it does not mean war with Commonwealth and asked not to hide fugitives. Later, Ahmed pasha wrote to hetman Żółkiewski asking for cooperation. Żółkiewski answered that he already does a lot to curb Cossacks and anyway most of Cossacks riding Ottoman lands are not Commonwealth Cossacks (Zaporozhian Cossacks) but Don Cossacks (thus Muscovy Cossacks). Żółkiewski made military demonstration with his troops but Ahmed pasha did not attempt to cross border, just built new fortifications in Oczaków in order to prevent future raids.

In 1615 widow after Ieremia Movilă and dukes Michał Wiśniowiecki and Samuel Korecki organized third intervention, this time against king Zygmunt's will. Their troops consisted of their private troops, mercenaries, Cossacks and Moldavians loyal to Movilă. Tomşa was removed and juvenile Alexandru Movilă (Aleksander Mohyła) was set on throne. But success did not last long. In August 1616 Iskander Pasha , bejlerbej of Oczaków, defeated intervening magante's forces in the same place at Sasowy Róg, duke Samuel Korecki and the Movilă family ended in Constantinople prison. Movilă family did not leave it, Wiśniowiecki died prior to imprisoning and Korecki escaped prison, only to end in the very same place once again after the deafeat in the battle of Cecora in 1620, this time to finally die there (strangled).

Again in 1616 Stefan Żółkiewski managed to cool the tensions displaying Commonwealth military readiness and signing a new agreement with new hospodar at Braha . Hospodar promised that will help to patch up conflict between Ottoman Empire and Commonwealth, sworn allegiance to Polish king and promised to not pass Tatar raids through his territory. However northern and eastern wars with Sweden and Muscovy occupied Commonwealth and strained it military might too much. Year later, in 1617, after another wave of Cossack raids, Ottoman sultan sent a powerful force under Iskander to the Commonwealth borders. It consisted of janissaries, Tatars and troops of vassals form Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia (in the number up to 40000). Żółkiewski met them near Busza (at river Jaruga ) but neither side decided to fight, and letters between leaders were exchanged since the start of Iskander march. Żółkiewski had mostly magnate troops and no Cossacks troops, as the Commonwealth fought war with Muscovy and with newest Swedish aggression on Inflanty in the same time, while Ottoman Empire fought war with Persia. Żółkiewski was forced to renounce the Polish claims to Moldavia at in 1617 with Iskander pasha at Treaty of Busza (also known as the Treaty at Jaruga ). This treaty stated that Poland would not meddle into internal matters of Ottoman vassals: Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia, Commonwealth were to keep Cossacks from raiding Ottoman Empire, gave back Chocim (castle and city on the southern (right) bank of Dniestr, while Turks promised to stop Tatar raids.

However, little of the treaty provisions were put into life again. The Tatars raids soon resumed in 1618 (or perhaps even in 1617), as commanders Dobrujja and Bucak Ordes left Iskander camp during talks and started raiding. Żółkiewki could not divide forces and Tatars plundered unopposed. In 1617 and 1619 Żółkiewski forced Cossacks to sign a new agreements (umowa olszaniecka and biało-cerkiewna). Boats were supposed to be burnt, and raids were forbidden. However, Cossack raids did not cease neither. In July 1618, after many warnings, young and ambitious sultan Osman II send a letter to king Zygmunt III with threats of declaring war and burning Kraków. At that time this was only threat since Ottomans were involved in war with Persia. However, Osman II planned for the war against the Commonwealth to compensate the Ottomans for the losses sustained against Persia, where in the Ottoman-Persian wars of 1603-11 and 1617-18/19 Ottoman Empire lost Azerbaijan, Georgia and Caucasus.

Sultan Osman II

{to be continued, sections below is work in progress, may be moved to another article)

Prelude to the next conflict (1618-1620)

In 1618, the Thirty Years' War started. Czech protestants were supported by German ones, and by Hungarian nobles as well. The Hungarians asked the ruler of Transylvania, Bethlen Gabor , for help and declared their wish to unite Hungary with Transylvania. After the sultan's removal of the previous Transylvanian ruler (by troops of Iskander pasha in 1613), Bethlen Gabor was appointed to this post. He was anti-Polish and a loyal Ottoman vassal and had aspirations to extend his rule to Moravia, Bohemia, and Silesia. Polish hetman Stefan Żółkiewski warned Gabor against joining the protestant side and promised help against the Ottoman Empire; however, Gabor answered that it was too late to change allegiances. When the fight was joined by Bethlen Gabor on the protestant side, his siege of Vienna threatened to extend Transylvanian rule (and thus Ottoman) to Bohemia and Silesia.

Polish nobles (szlachta) supported the Czechs (at least verbally) because the struggle of Czech and Hungarian nobles was viewed as a struggle of "free" nobility against absolutist monarchs. Nobles would not fight the protestants, and Sejm had even forbidden Zygmunt III to send Polish assistance (army) to the Habsburgs. However, the king of Poland sympathized with the Habsburgs. Additionally, Poland hoped to get back some parts of Silesia. During talks with the son of Zygmunt, prince Władysław IV Waza, on his voyage to Silesia in mid of 1619, Emperor Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor promised to allow a temporary occupation of part of Silesia by Polish forces, with the possibility of incorporating those areas into Poland. Some of Piast (old Polish dynasty) dukes of Silesia also supported returning their lands under Polish reign, especially given thhe attractive Commonwealth religious tolerance policy and the fact that the Polish western regions have been very peaceful and secure for a long time.

Zygmunt III decided to help the Habsburgs and privately hired an infamous mercenary group called the Lisowczycy, who were unemployed after the end of the wars with Muscovy (Dimitriads) and were plundering Lithuania and terrorizing the entire region. Zygmunt sent Lisowczycy to aid the Habsburgs at the end of 1619. Ferdinand did not agree to any pernament concessions in Silesia in the end, but only made Władysław's brother, prince Karol Ferdynand, bishop of Wrocław. The Habsburgs did not provide any help against the Ottoman Empire either. Lisowczycy crushed Transylvanian forces led by Rakoczy at Humienne and started looting, plundering, and killing even children and dogs and burning eastern Slovakia, thus forcing Gabor to lift his siege of Vienna and try to save his own country. Later, Lisowczycy plagued Silesia and Bohemia, and participated in the Battle of White Mountain.

The ruler of Moldavia, another vassal of the Ottoman sultan, a Croatian Catholic hospodar Gaspar Grazziani (in Polish Kasper Gratiani), decided he would be better off under Polish rule and started talks with Polish king, promising to send 25,000 men. The Polish envoy to Istanbul who arrived in April, 1620, was received very coldly. Later Cossack raiding and burning of Istanbul suburbs did not help.

The Habsburg envoy actively worked against a new treaty between the Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire because the Habsburgs knew that any Polish-Ottoman conflict meant less trouble for themselves. This intrigue caused a new war to be unavoidable. In Poland, the king and the hetmans exaggerated the danger in order to recruit more troops and raise taxes for the army. However, the nobles did not believe them. The Polish nobles did not want to raise taxes for an army and gossiped about the real reason of this expedition. The nobles often thwarted the king's initiatives even if these would be in the country's interest and beneficent for the nobles in the long run, often acting as if they thought everything the king proposed was aimed to increase the king's power and reduce their privileges. The nobles were generally interested in keeping the status quo with their high standard of life.

Some historians say that king Zygmunt decided to intervene in Moldavia because of internal problems caused mostly by sending Lisowczycy mercenaries to Habsburgs side (and their behavior). Others point out that some nobles threatened with armed rebellion (rokosz), and in case of successful intervention king would increase his and hetman's authority and focus noble's attention on external instead of internal problems. Aditionally, hetman Żółkiewski foreseeing confrontation with Ottoman Empire preferred to meet their troops on somebody's else soil.

In retrospect, this time the nobles were right about the lack of danger since neither Tatars nor Turks were ready in 1620, the sultan Osman II planned the war with Poland in 1621, but with small forces. However this policy of neglecting the military would eventually dearly cost the Commonwealth in the coming decades.

Battle of Cecora and its aftermath (1620-1621)

Main article: Battle of Cecora

The next phase of the Ottoman-Commonwealth conflict would begin in 1620. After Cossacks burned the town Varna that year, the new young Ottoman sultan Osman II made peace with Persia and promised to burn the Commonwealth to the ground and 'water his horses in the Baltic Sea'. Żółkiewski forces went deep into Moldavia but the Polish forces were defeated in the Battle of Cecora, where hetman Żółkiewski died.

The following year, in 1621, an army of 160,000 Turkish veterans led by Sultan Osman II in person advanced from Adrianople towards the Polish frontier, but hetman Chodkiewicz crossed the Dnieper in September 1621 and entrenched himself in the fortress of Chocim (Khotyn) right in the path of the Ottoman advance. Here for a whole month the Commonwealth hetman held the sultan at bay, till the first fall of autumn snow compelled Osman to withdraw his diminished forces. But the victory was dearly purchased by Poland. A few days before the siege was raised the aged grand hetman died of exhaustion in the fortress on September 24, 1621.

Chodkiewicz didn't die alone. Sultan Osman paid the highest price for the failure of his plans. After the tides turned and the Ottoman forces were defeated and forced to withdraw, this, coupled with internal Ottoman politics, triggered the rebellion of janissaries in 1622 , during which Osman II was murdered.

The Commonwealth-Ottoman border would be fairly quiet until the Ottoman-Commonwealth War (1633-1634) .

See also

• Nobles' Democracy - the history of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1567-1795)